History of Social Psychology Essay Essays

History of Social Psychology Essay Essays History of Social Psychology Essay Essay History of Social Psychology Essay Essay As a scientific subject. societal psychological science is merely a spot older than one hundred old ages. with most of the growing happening during the past five decennaries ( McGarty A ; Haslam. 1997 ) . By most criterions. societal psychological science is a comparatively immature scientific discipline. In discoursing the discipline’s history. it should be noted that there are two societal psychological sciences. one in psychological science and the other in sociology. with the larger of the two being the psychological subdivision ( Jones. 1998 ) . The cardinal focal point of psychological societal psychological science is how the single responds to societal stimulations. whereas sociological societal psychological science focal points on larger group or social variables. such as people’s socioeconomic position. their societal functions. and cultural norms ( Stryker. 1997 ) . Although there have been calls to unify the two societal psychological sciences into a individual field ( Backman. 1983 ) -- and even a joint psychology-sociology doctorial plan at the University of Michigan from 1946 to 1967–their different orientations make it doubtful that this will transpirate in the foreseeable hereafter. In this historical overview. the psychological subdivision of th e subject will be highlighted. Wundt and The Dawning of a Scientific Discipline: 1862-1894 German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt ( 1832-1921 ) . who is widely regarded as the laminitis of psychological science. had a manus in the early development of what would go societal psychological science. In 1862. Wundt proposed that there should be two subdivisions of psychological science: physiological psychological science and societal or folk psychological science ( Volkerpsychologie ) . Largely due to his influential Hagiographas. by 1900 Germany’s one-year bibliography of the psychological literature listed over 200 articles per twelvemonth under the heading â€Å"social psychological science. † Despite his influence in determining societal psychological science in Europe. Wundt’s thoughts had small impact on American societal scientists because his Hagiographas were non translated into English and his construct of psychological science as the â€Å"science of the mind† was incompatible with the new behaviourist position in the United States that emerg ed during the early old ages of the twentieth century. Underliing behaviourism was a doctrine known as logical positivism. which contended that cognition should be expressed in footings that could be verified through empirical observation or through direct observation. This new â€Å"science of behavior† had small usage for Wundt’s construct of societal psychological science. This was particularly true for the societal psychological science developing in psychological science in America. but less so for sociological societal psychological science. Thus. psychological societal psychological science in America. which would go the rational nucleus of the subject. developed mostly outside the kingdom of Wundtian influence. The Early Old ages: 1895–1935 An American psychologist at Indiana University. Norman Triplett. is by and large credited with holding conducted the first empirical societal psychological survey. In 1895 Triplett asked the undermentioned inquiry: â€Å"How does a person’s public presentation of a undertaking alteration when other people are present? † The inquiry was prompted by Triplett detecting that a bike racer’s velocity was faster when he was paced by other bicyclers than when he raced entirely. Bing a racing partisan and wanting to larn what caused these different race times. he devised the first societal scientific experiment. In this survey. he asked kids to rapidly weave line on a fishing reel either entirely or in the presence of other kids executing the same undertaking. As he had predicted. the kids wound the line faster when in the presence of other kids. Published in 1897. this survey is credited with presenting the experimental method into the societal scientific disciplines. Despite the significance of this survey. it took a full coevals for research workers to understand the societal psychological kineticss underlying Triplett’s findings ( see the chapter 10 treatment of societal facilitation ) . Despite this achievement. Triplett did nil to set up societal psychological science as a distinguishable subfield of psychological science. Recognition for this accomplishment goes to the first writers of text editions bearing that rubric. viz. . English psychologist William McDougall and American sociologist Edward Ross. who each published separate texts in 1908. Consistent with the modern-day position in psychological societal psychological science. McDougall considered the person to be the chief unit of analysis in this new scientific discipline. while Ross. true to the modern-day sociological societal psychological science position. highlighted groups. Despite the startup of this new subfield within psychological science and sociology. societal psychological science still lacked a distinguishable individuality. How was it different from the other subdisciplines within the two larger subjects? What were its methods of enquiry? In 1924 a 3rd societal psychological science text. published by Floyd Allport ( older brother of Gordon Allport ) . went a long manner in replying these inquiries for psychological societal psychological science. Reading his words today. you can see the emerging position that would one twenty-four hours pervade the psychological subdivision of the field: I believe that merely within the single can we happen the behavior mechanisms and consciousness which are cardinal in the interactions between individuals†¦ . There is no psychological science of groups which is non basically and wholly a psychological science of individuals†¦ . Psychology in all its subdivisions is a scientific discipline of the person. ( Allport. 1924. p. 4 ) Allport’s construct of societal psychological science was proposed eleven old ages after John Watson ushered in the behaviourist epoch in American psychological science. Allport’s trade name of societal psychological science emphasized how the individual responds to stimuli in the societal environment. with the group simply being one of many such stimulations. Beyond this emerging individualist and behaviourist cast. Allport further shaped the individuality of American societal psychological science by lauding the virtuousnesss of the experimental method in analyzing such subjects as conformance. gestural communicating. and societal facilitation. The chase of societal psychological cognition through carefully controlled experimental processs would progressively qualify the field in the coming old ages. As Allport’s construct of societal psychological science gained American disciples. German societal psychological science was being shaped by the Gestalt position. which rejected both the bing European-inspired impression of a group head and the American individualist stand that groups were non existent in themselves. Alternatively. Gestalt societal psychologists contended that the societal environment is made up non merely of persons. but of dealingss between persons. and these relationships have of import psychological deductions. Therefore. Gestalt societal psychologists promoted an apprehension of groups as existent societal entities. which straight led to the tradition of group procedures and group kineticss that still exists today. These two schools of idea within psychological societal psychological science. one in America and the other in Germany. which were developing independent of one another. would shortly be thrust together due to events on the universe scene. The Coming of Age: 1936–1945 During the first three decennaries of the 20th century. Allport’s construct of societal psychological science emphasized basic research. with small consideration given to turn toing specific societal jobs or broader issues bearing on reform. However. by the mid-1930s. the subject was poised for farther growing and enlargement. The events that had the greatest impact on societal psychological science at this critical occasion in its history were the Great Depression in the United States and the societal and political turbulences in Europe generated by the First and Second World Wars. Following the stock market clang of 1929. many immature psychologists were unable to happen or keep occupations. Experiencing firsthand the impact of social forces. many of them adopted the broad ideals of the Roosevelt â€Å"New Dealers† or the more extremist leftist political positions of the socialist and communist parties. In 1936 these societal scientists formed an organisation dedicated to the scientific survey of of import societal issues and the support for progressive societal action ( Stagner. 1986 ) . This organisation. known as the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues ( SPSSI ) . contained many societal psychologists who were interested in using their newly developed theories and political activism to real-world jobs. One of the of import parts of SPSSI to societal psychological science was. and continues to be. the extract of moralss and values into the treatment of societal life. Its immediate impact on societal psychological science in the 1930s was to inculcate a more applied character to research. New countries of research spawned during this decennary were intergroup dealingss. leading. propaganda. organisational behaviour. voting behaviour. and consumer behaviour. In other states. universe events triggered alterations that farther distinguished American societal psychological science from its scientific cousins abroad. For illustration. the communist revolution in Russia at the terminal of the First World War led to a purge of individualist-oriented research and theorizing. a development that stood in blunt contrast to the increasing focal point on the person within American societal psychological science. In 1936. the Soviet Union’s Communist Party forbids the usage of psychological trials in assorted applied scenes. which efficaciously prohibited the survey of single differences. At the same clip. the rise of fascism in Germany. Spain. and Italy created a strong philistine and anti-semitic ambiance in these states. To get away this persecution. a figure of Europe’s taking societal scientists. such as Fritz Heider. Gustav Ichheiser. Kurt Lewin. and Theodor Adorno. immigrated to America. When the United States entered the war. many societal psychologists- both American and European- applied their cognition of human behaviour in a broad assortment of wartime plans. including the choice of officers for the Office of Strategic Services ( the precursor of the Central Intelligence Agency ) and the undermining of enemy morale ( Hoffman. 1992 ) . The constructive work ensuing from this coaction demonstrated the practical utility of societal psychological science. During this clip of planetary discord. one of the most influential societal psychologists was Kurt Lewin. a Judaic refugee from Nazi Germany. Lewin was instrumental in establishing SPSSI and served as its president in 1941. He steadfastly believed that societal psychological science did non hold to do a pick between being either a pure scientific discipline or an applied scientific discipline. His oft-repeated axiom. â€Å"No research without action. and no action without research† continues to act upon societal psychologists interested in using their cognition to current societal jobs ( Ash. 1992 ) . By the clip of his decease in 1947 at the age of 57. Lewin had provided many of societal psychology’s specifying features ( Lewin. 1936 ; Lewin et Al. . 1939 ) . With the terminal of the war. chances were bright for societal psychological science in North America. Based on their heightened stature in the scientific community. societal psychologists established new research installations. secured authorities grants. and. most of import. trained graduate pupils. These future societal psychologists were preponderantly white. male. and in-between category. Many of their wise mans were the European bookmans who had fled their native states and so remained in America following the war. Yet. while societal psychological science was booming in this state. the annihilating effects of the universe war virtually destroyed the subject overseas. In this postwar period. the United States emerged as the undisputed universe power. and merely as it exported its material goods to other states. it exported its societal psychological science every bit good. This trade name of societal psychological science reflected the political political orientation of America n society and the societal jobs encountered within its boundaries ( Farr. 1996 ) . Rapid Expansion: 1946–1969 With its extract of European intellectuals and the late trained immature American societal psychologists. the maturating scientific discipline of societal psychological science expanded its theoretical and research base. To understand how a civilised society like Germany could fall under the influence of a pitiless rabble-rouser like Adolf Hitler. Theodor Adorno and his co-workers ( Adorno et al. . 1950 ) studied the psychological parametric quantities of the autocratic personality. Some old ages subsequently. Stanley Milgram ( 1963 ) extended this line of research in his now celebrated obeisance experiments. which examined the conditions that make people more likely to obey destructive authorization figures. Social psychologists besides focused their attending on the influence that the group had on the person ( Asch. 1956 ) and of the power of persuasive communicating ( Hovland et al. . 1949 ) . Arguably the most important line of research and speculating during this period was Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive disagreement ( Festinger. 1957 ) . This theory asserted that people’s ideas and actions were motivated by a desire to keep cognitive consistence. The simpleness of the theory and its frequently surprising findings generated involvement and enthusiasm both inside and outside of societal psychological science for many old ages. Social psychology’s concern with social bias continued to asseverate itself during the fiftiess. For illustration. the 1954 U. S. Supreme Court determination to stop the pattern of racially segregated instruction was partially based on Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark’s research bespeaking that segregation negatively affected the self-concept of Black kids. In that same twelvemonth. Gordon Allport ( brother of Floyd Allport ) provided a theoretical lineation for how integration might cut down racial bias. What came to be known as the contact hypothesis was a societal psychological design for cut downing ill will between groups by pull stringsing situational variables. This perspective toward understanding and â€Å"fixing† bias better fit the behaviourist societal psychological science practiced in America than the earlier developed autocratic personality attack. The decennary of the sixtiess was a clip of convulsion in the United States. with the state caught in the clasp of political blackwashs. urban force. societal protests. and the Vietnam War. Peoples were seeking for constructive ways to alter society for the better. Following this lead. societal psychologists devoted more research clip to such subjects as aggression. assisting. attractive force. and love. The groundbreaking research of Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid ( Berscheid A ; Hatfield. 1969 ; Hatfield et Al. . 1966 ) on interpersonal and romantic attractive force. for illustration. was non merely of import in widening the range of societal psychological enquiry. but it besides generated considerable contention outside the field. A figure of public functionaries and ordinary citizens thought societal scientists should non seek to understand the enigmas of love affair. Less controversial was the bystander intercession research conducted by Bibb Latane and John Darley ( 1968 ) . which was inspired by the 1984 slaying of Kitty Genovese in New York City. Despite the chariness of some. during the 1960s the federal authorities expanded its efforts to bring around social ailments with the counsel of societal scientists. Within this cultural context. the figure of societal psychologists rose dramatically. Among these new societal scientists were an increasing figure of adult females and. to a lesser grade. minority members. Whole new lines of enquiry into societal behaviour commenced. with an increasing involvement in the interaction of the societal state of affairs with personality factors. The battalion and diverseness of these lines of research would go on into the undermentioned decennaries ( Pion et al. . 1996 ) . Crisis and Reassesesment: 1970–1984 When societal psychological science foremost emerged from World War II and embarked on its rapid enlargement. one of the innovators in the field. Theodore Newcomb ( 1951 ) . expressed concern that outlooks were greater than anything that could be delivered in the close hereafter. By the seventiess. when solutions to societal jobs were no closer to being solved. and as the utility and moralss of experimental research came under increased examination. a â€Å"crisis of confidence† emerged ( Elms. 1975 ) . When this letdown and unfavorable judgment was followed by accusals from adult females and minorities that past research and theory reflected the prejudices of a white. male-dominated position of world. many began to reevaluate the field’s basic premises. Fortunately. out of this crisis emerged a more critical and inclusive field of societal psychological science. More strict ethical criterions were established. and although experiments remained the method of pick. research workers began carry oning more correlational surveies. every bit good as using other methods. Sing accusals of racial and gender prejudice. societal psychological science began traveling toward more responsible places. but such prejudices have yet to be eliminated from the subject ( Graham. 1992 ; Tesser A ; Bau. 2002 ) . Another of import development during this clip period was the importation of thoughts from cognitive psychological science in explicating societal behaviour. This â€Å"cognitive revolution† ( see p. 00 ) greatly enhanced theory and research in all countries of societal psychological science. and its impact persists today. Attach toing the societal cognitive accent was renewed involvement in the construct of the ego. which antecedently had been the focal point of merely sociological societal psychologists. However. with the declining influence of behaviourism. psychological societal psychologists rediscovered the penetrations of establishing societal scientists such as William James. John Dewey. Charles Horton Cooley. and George Herbert Mead. Soon the ego became a cardinal construct within psychological societal psychological science. An Expanding Global and Interdisciplinary View of Social Psychology: 1985–present By the seventiess. both European and Latin American societal psychological associations had been founded. and in 1995. the Asian Association of Social Psychology was formed. The societal psychological science that developed overseas placed more accent on intergroup and social variables in explicating societal behaviour than did its American cousin. In the mid-1980s. this abroad influence began to reshape the subject. as societal psychologists throughout the universe actively exchanged thoughts and collaborated on transnational surveies ( Fiske et al. . 1998 ; Vala et Al. . 1996 ) . Many of the new thoughts about societal behaviour were generated by bookmans from collectivized civilizations who were raised within societies that have a really different position on the relationship between the person and the group than that within the societies of traditional societal psychologists. Subsequent cross-cultural research found that certain societal beliefs and behaviours that were antecedently considered cosmopolitan were in actuality particular to the socialisation patterns of individualist civilizations. Based on these findings. considerable research attending was devoted to finding which facets of human behaviour are civilization specific–due to conditions bing within a peculiar culture–and which 1s are due to human’s shared evolutionary heritage. Although societal psychology’s â€Å"professional centre of gravity† still resides in the United States. European and Third World societal psychological science offers the full field chances to get away what some consider the restrictions of this â€Å"gravitational pull† to comprehend new universes of societal world ( Shinha. 2003 ; Tam et Al. . 2003 ) . This multicultural position will go on to steer research in the coming old ages. Contemporary societal psychologists have besides continued the bequest of Kurt Lewin and SPSSI by using their cognition to a broad sphere of mundane life. such as jurisprudence. wellness. instruction. political relations. athleticss. and concern ( Ellsworth A ; Mauro. 1998 ; Kinder. 1998 ; Salovey et Al. . 1998 ) . This involvement in using the rules and findings of societal psychological science is a natural branch of the hunt for apprehension. Despite the laterality of societal knowledge in the 1980s. some societal psychologists raised concerns about the comparative deficiency of focal point on emotions and motivations in explicating societal thought. These critics of bing societal cognitive theories argued that to believe of motivations and affect as simply end merchandises in a cardinal processing system was to dehumanise societal psychological science. In the early 1990s. a figure of societal psychologists sought to set up a more balanced position by intermixing the traditional hot and cold positions into what some have termed the Warm Look. These revised social-cognitive theories proposed that people employ multiple cognitive schemes based on their current ends. motivations. and demands. Theorists typically developed dual-process theoretical accounts. intending that societal thought and behaviour is determined by two different ways of apprehension and reacting to societal stimulations. One manner of information processing- related to the cold position legacy–is based on effortful. brooding thought. in which no action is taken until its possible effects are decently weighed and evaluated. The alternate manner of treating information–related to the hot position legacy- is based on minimum cognitive attempt. in which behaviour is impetuously and accidentally activated by emotions. wonts. or biological thrusts. frequently below the â€Å"radar† of consciousness. Which of the two avenues of information processing people take at any given clip is the topic of ongoing research. This attending to both expressed and inexplicit knowledge has late prompted societal psychologists to research how nervous activity in the encephalon is associated with assorted societal psychological procedures. including self-awareness. self-regulation. attitude formation and alteration. group interaction. and bias. Although the Numberss of societal psychologists who pursue such research is still comparatively little. the cognition they get refering the biological science of societal behaviour will doubtless play a function in reshaping bing theories. Indeed. the U. S. federal government’s National Institute of Mental Health- which has an one-year budget of 1. 3 billion dollars–has late given precedence to research grants that combine societal psychological science and neuroscience. In reasoning this historical overview. if the life of a scientific subject is correspondent to a person’s life. so modern-day societal psychological science is best idea of as a â€Å"young adult† in the societal scientific disciplines. Compared with some of the more constituted scientific disciplines. societal psychological science is â€Å"barely dry behind the ears† and still capable to turning strivings ( Abrams A ; Hogg. 2004 ; Brewer. 2004 ; Rozin. 2001 ) . Yet it is a subject where new and advanced thoughts are remarkably welcome. where new theoretical attacks and scientific methods from other scientific subjects are on a regular basis incorporated into the survey of societal thought and behaviour. and where members of the subject regularly inquiry the societal significance of their findings. In this on-going critical self-assessment. most societal psychologists are confident that their still-young scientific discipline will go on uncovering of import pen etrations into how we function as societal animals. Some of the mileposts of the field are listed in table 1. Table 1Some Milestones in the Field of Social Psychology The Dawning of a New Discipline and Early Old ages 1862: Wilhelm Wundt proposes that psychological science set up human or societal scientific disciplines ( Geisteswissenschaften ) to analyze the higher mental procedures affecting linguistic communication. societal patterns and imposts. faith. and art. 1897: Norman Triplett publishes the first scientific survey of societal behaviour. on a subject that was subsequently called societal facilitation. 1900: Wundt publishes the first volume of what would go a authoritative 10-volume set of Volkerpsychologie ( common people or societal psychological science ) which analyzed a broad assortment of societal idea and behaviour. 1908: Psychologist William McDougall and sociologist Edward Ross individually publish societal psychological science text editions. 1920: Willy Hellpach founds the first Institute for Social Psychology inGermany. Hitler’s rise to power leads to the institute’s death in 1933. 1924: Floyd Allport publishes the 3rd societal psychological science text. clearly placing the focal point for the psychological subdivision of the subject and covering many subjects that are still studied today. 1925: Edward Bogardus develops the societal distance graduated table to mensurate attitudes toward cultural groups. Shortly. Louis Thurstone ( 1928 ) and Rensis Likert ( 1932 ) further beforehand attitude graduated table development. 1934: George Herbert Mead’s book Mind. Self. and Society is published. emphasizing the interaction between the ego and others. The Coming-of-Age Old ages 1936: The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues is founded. Muzafir Sherif publishes The Psychology of Social Norms. depicting research on norm formation. 1939: John Dollard and his co-workers introduce the frustration-aggression hypothesis. 1941–1945: Social psychologists are recruited by the U. S. authorities for the war attempt. Rapid Expansion Old ages 1949: Carl Hovland and his co-workers print their first experiments on attitude alteration and persuasion. 1950: Theodor Adorno and his co-workers print The Authoritarian Personality. which examines how utmost bias can be shaped by personality struggles in childhood. 1951: Solomon Asch demonstrates conformance to false bulk judgements. 1954: Gordon Allport publishes The Nature of Prejudice. which provides the model for much of the future research on bias. Social psychologists provide cardinal testimony in the U. S. Supreme Court integration instance. Brown v. Board of Education. 1957: Leon Festinger publishes A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. stressing the demand for consistence between knowledge and behaviour. 1958: Fritz Heider publishes The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. puting the basis for ascription theory. 1963: Stanley Milgram publishes his obeisance research. showing under what conditions people are likely to obey destructive authorization figures. 1965: The Society of Experimental Social Psychology is founded. Edward Jones and Kenneth Davis print their thoughts on societal perceptual experience. exciting ascription and societal knowledge research. Rapid Expansion Old ages 1966: The European Association of Experimental Social Psychology is founded. Elaine ( Walster ) Hatfield and her co-workers print the first surveies of romantic attractive force. 1968: John Darley and Bibb Latane present the bystander intercession theoretical account. explicating why people frequently do non assist in exigencies. Crisis and Reassessment Old ages 1972: Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior. written by six influential ascription theoreticians. is published. Robert Wicklund and Shelley Duval publish Objective Self-Awareness Theory. depicting how self-awareness influences knowledge and behaviour. 1974: The Society for Personality and Social Psychology ( SPSP ) is founded. Sandra Bem develops the Bem Sex Role Inventory and Janet Spence and Robert Helmreich develop the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. both of which step gender functions. 1981: Alice Eagly and her co-workers begin carry oning meta-analyses of gender comparings in societal behaviour. reopening the argument on gender differences. 1984: Susan Fiske and Shelly Taylor publish Social Cognition. sum uping theory and research on the societal cognitive position in societal psychological science. The Expanding Global and Interdisciplinary View Years 1986: Richard Petty and John Cacioppo publish Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes. depicting a dual-process theoretical account of persuasion. 1989: Jennifer Crocker and Brenda Major print their Psychological Review article on â€Å"Social Stigma and Self-Esteem. † analyzing how people respond to being the marks of favoritism. 1991: Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama print their Psychological Review article on how civilization shapes the ego. 1995: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson publish â€Å"Stereotype Menace and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans† in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. showing their research on how negative stereotypes can determine rational individuality and public presentation. 1996: David Buss and Neal Malamuth publish Sex. Power. Conflict. an emended text offering evolutionary and feminist positions on sex and gender interactions. A turning figure of societal psychologists attempt to incorporate these antecedently divergent positions. ( Because the transition of clip finally determines what events significantly shape a field. I will wait a few old ages before adding any more mileposts to this list. )

Effects of Viagra on Women and Female Sexuality

Effects of Viagra on Women and Female Sexuality When women go through menopause, the hormonal changes they experience often lead to a drop in libido and less interest in sex. Its nature taking its course - just another phase in the female life cycle. Its the way were built and programmed, biologically speaking. So what do we do about Viagra and the other ED (erectile dysfunction) drugs that are now commonplace and marketed directly to men in TV commercials and magazine ads? Its an important question to ponder because as every woman knows, it takes two to tango. Viagras impact on mens sex lives also impacts womens sex lives. Meika Loe has pondered this very question in her book, The Rise of Viagra: How the Little Blue Pill Changed Sex in America. And the answers shes uncovered are disturbing. Loe, who is Assistant Professor of Sociology Anthropology and Womens Studies at Colgate University, has also written extensively about sex and senior women. Viagra is marketed to aging men whose female counterparts are going through their own sexual crisis: menopause. These women want less sex but their partners now want more. Isnt this counter-intuitive? Doesnt this turn the bedroom into a battlefield at a time when women are already vulnerable (e.g., empty nest syndrome, feeling less attractive as we age, physical changes due to menopause including hair loss and weight gain, etc.) I recently visited my OB/GYN, and upon hearing about this research, she volunteered that many of her women patients have complained that Viagra has not helped their sex lives. The introduction of the pill has made sexuality, among other things, intercourse-focused and thus less satisfying. We hear this kind of thing over and over. My analysis of syndicated advice columns after Viagras debut in 1998 revealed many negative responses among women. Women writing to Dear Abby, for example, were either no longer interested in sex (and thus Viagra created new unwelcome pressure to be sexually active again), or fearing their husbands were having affairs in the context of their newfound sexual potency, and/or experiencing sometimes painful physiological effects of reigniting their sex lives later in life. It seems that Viagra raised quite a few questions for married women about marital obligation, for example. Then again, there were other letters that reflected excitement about husbands feeling healthy and confident after a period of impotence, so the response to Viagra in the population is quite complex. It would have been nice to see an explosion of people communicating about sexuality after Viagras release, but in our pill-for-everything culture, we tend to let the pill do the work and forget that it may not be an end-all be-all. Viagra tended to just exacerbate or throw light on already existing problems in relationships. It should be telling that at this point, almost 10 years after Viagras debut, only 50% of men who received prescriptions for Viagra end up refilling their prescriptions. Its not simply about a man being able to have pleasurable sex. Its also about power and dominance, virility despite aging. Its a way for men to deny that they are past their sexual peak. What are the long-term implications for a society that has Viagra in its drug arsenal? Viagra was the harbinger of things to come in the form of the pharmacology of aging and sexuality (sexual medicine is in expansion mode post-Viagra). All of this is due to a combination of, among other things, changing demographics (e.g. aging population), direct to consumer advertising/consumer-based medicine (Viagra being one of the first drugs to be advertised directly to the consumer) and pharmaceutical expansion. It is important to see that Viagras popularity fits in a particular cultural moment in our history, and there will be/have been plenty of other products to follow (including medications) that emphasize the holy triumvirate: youth, vitality, and performance. In short, as a sociologist, I see Viagra as a cultural product and thus a window onto our culture. It helps us see where we are when it comes to sexuality (and our ambivalence), gender (masculinity and sexual performance packaged together), medicine (quick-fix and lifestyle enhancement emphasis more than ever), and aging (we’re uncomfortable with it but do we all want to be 18 again?). Pfizer has helped to reinforce these traditional and not-so-traditional ideals with Viagra and it has been fascinating to see how successful they have been here and around the world with this youth, vitality, and performance-based message. Again, now that the initial curiosity factor has disappeared, it is unclear how successful sexual dysfunction medication really is. Viagra has spurred several like products – Cialis and Levitra. But the refill rate on all three is low. Viagra is certainly sociologically significant as it has highlighted many social problems in the way we do health and gender and sexuality in our society. Is Viagra Use Common Within the General Population? How does this affect behavior or alter men and womens sexual intimacy? It is difficult to find demographic information about who uses Viagra, but in internet chat rooms, doctors offices, pharmacies, etc. you find men of all ages interested in discussing the drug. We spoke with young men who had purchased Viagra out of insecurity- a just in case situation where they felt they had to live up to some social standard their first time and had purchased the pills (or borrowed them) to have some assurance of adequate performance. We also spoke with men in their 80s who felt like it gave them life again. Meika Loe, author of The Rise of Viagra: How the Little Blue Pill Changed Sex in America, acknowledges that Viagra and other ED (erectile dysfunction) drugs create additional pressure in the already complex sex lives of men and women. She also noted how it underscores the sexual ambivalence present in our society- our obsession and disgust with sex. Viagra use has a dark side. John Jamelske, the 67-year-old man who held a number of young women captive as sexual slaves in an underground bunker, took Viagra. Two toxicologists, Harold Milman and S.B. Arnold, have stated in the Annals of Pharmacotherapy that the drug has been suggested as a contributing factor in 22 cases involving aggression, 13 involving rape, and 6 involving murder. Clearly, Viagra is linked to violence against women. In the course of my research I found that Pfizer had consulted with quite a few experts about possible litigation down the line regarding Viagra. A pill for sexual potency can be a dangerous thing in a culture that is highly ambivalent about sexuality- both obsessed and disgusted with it at the same time. This sexual ambivalence is what we have inherited from the Puritans. It is one reason sexuality itself is so emotionally charged and controversial in this country (we see this in regards to sex education, advertising, reproductive politics, etc.). In the U.S. we seem to spend just as much time and effort on censoring sexuality as we do encouraging it, which makes for a very confused populace! We see this confusion in our bedrooms and in the society at large, and when Viagra is added to the mix it can highlight the issues we have with sexuality as a society. Speaking of sexual ambivalence... were a culture thats afraid to talk about sex with our children. So how is it that Viagra and ED drug commercials run during primetime and no one bats an eye? At least one Pfizer TV ad was pulled off the air (the one where the man gets devil horns after taking Viagra) but you’re right- it’s everywhere. Or it was for many years. Viagra racecars. Viagra ads during the Superbowl- and Janet Jackson got flack for showing a breast when during the commercial breaks, ads discussing penises and erections, and beer ads promoting sexuality like crazy were considered appropriate! Viagra was even posted over home base when Pfizer was the primary sponsor of pro baseball. Now we see Levitra and Cialis advertised just as often. It goes back to that Puritan ethic. We’re obsessed with sex and also offended by it- it’s a fine line. An African American woman’s breast crossed the line for some people. Sexuality in the context of medical dysfunction (complete with scientific imprimatuer and legitimacy) seems to pass. When we look at the way men and women use pharmaceutical interventions, men focus on performance (Viagra) and women focus on appearance (Botox). Or is this a gendered generalization? Sociologists would say that these are the values/characteristics we teach each sex to value most. Men are about what they DO, women are about how they LOOK. We reinforce this constantly in our society (just look at ads – men are generally depicted as active, women as body parts, or still lives, or close-ups). So it follows that our drug use maintains these gendered distinctions. What would you like to stress to women of every age about Viagra and womens sexuality? Living in the pharmaceutical era it sometimes seems easiest and most expedient to turn to medication to enhance our lives or fix our problems. However, we can’t forget to attend to ourselves, our relationships, and our lives. Many men found that while Viagra may have helped them physiologically (although for many it didn’t work or came with a host of scary side-effects), it was no solution to general sexual or life satisfaction. In some cases it actually exacerbated existing issues in peoples’ relationships or sense of self. Men and women are wonderfully complex and diverse creatures when it comes to sexuality AND in general. Simple solutions can end up oversimplifying- and doing us a disservice in the process.

Puerto Rico Court System Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Puerto Rico Court System - Research Paper Example There are various weaknesses that could be acknowledged out of the current judicial systems and this is as documented by Griffin and Abbot (2006). Understanding the strengths and the weaknesses would undoubtedly go a long way in informing what should constitute a desirable judicial system. One of the strong points in Griffin and Abbot (2006) is that they develop a comparative approach to judicial systems, and this approach is advantageous because it does not only give examples of flaws in practice that should be addressed but also some strengths that could be adopted, such as by newly established states. According to Griffin and Abbot (2006), U.S judicial system is constituted in a federal manner whereby each state within the federation has a different judicial system. Under the state court system, one is regarded innocent until proven guilty. This implies that the burden to prove one’s innocence lies with the state and not the person being accused. The system is made stronger because it is the responsibility of the state to find someone guilty thus making a person optimistic about their innocence prevailing. Another aspect of this judicial process is that a criminal is assured of a fair, quick trial as well as enjoy the privilege of being judged by jurists. This means that not a single judge can decide on one’s fate as it is the case in other countries. It also implies that a person who is innocent has all the evidence evaluated prior to making the sentence. These elements are undoubtedly the strong points of judicial systems and inform any benchmark to constitute a de sirable court system such as for a newly established state... These elements are undoubtedly the strong points of judicial systems and inform any benchmark to constitute a desirable court system such as for a newly established state. However, there is a limitation to this in the sense that much of the evidence may be suspended due to the procedure. A cop collecting evidence must do so according to set down statutes otherwise they could be done away with. In this case, evidence on tape cannot be taken into consideration if the accused was not aware that a recording was taking place as he was being interrogated by the police. This has led to guilty people walking away scot-free for crimes they have committed. This is because the passing of sentence is recommended by the same panel of jurists who determined his or her case the process becomes fair. Furthermore, the process gives judges a lot of freedom when sentencing criminals. Reeves (2008), cites examples of cases where two people get different timeframes when they have committed the same felon y. That tends to be one of the shortcomings of the state judicial process. The article proposes one guideline, neither should there be minimum nor maximum sentence.Unfortunately, discrimination when passing maximum sentence seems to be confined to black males, as the majority of the population gets fair sentencing.  

Ability & Dance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ability & Dance - Essay Example Our reaction tends to wander from discomfort (should they be allowing a man with no legs to do that?) to rather patronizingly expressed wonder at how they are able to achieve that. We forget that the dance is meant to be enjoyed to be a beautiful spectacle and not an item of pity, discomfort or faked wonder (Kilgannon). Over the years the concept of a disabled person dancing has always been frowned upon as if it is an imposition as if it as an added burden – don t they have enough difficulty as it is just walking on one leg, how will they ever manage to dance as well? As do the reactions – fake or otherwise – â€Å"It must be really taxing to achieve that†. Yet these are never asked of able-bodied dancers. Instead we are too wrapped up in the beauty and completeness of their sequences. Which al suddenly becomes unimportant and unimpressive the minute we see a disabled person try the same thing (Kilgannon). The first is the sequence with the hoola hoops done by the very flexible gentlemen and the lady. This sequence enables the audience to be mesmerized by how the two blend together, with the hoops being utilized very efficiently as props that improve the story-telling and narration of the dance. We see the man and the woman almost compete as far as dexterity is concerned, each showing off how flexible they are and how intricately they can use the hoops. The second sequence is the one in the dance studio with the disabled man and the able-bodied ballet dancer where they intertwine their limbs in such a way as to meld together in a beautiful concert of their limbs, the man’s arms and the ladies legs (Kilgannon). In the film the issues are not just of physical ability there is also mental ability since one of the men has an obsessive compulsive disorder of some sort going on as well. The film basically shows the humanity of the characters and tries to remove the inability but, as it does

Synthesis Paper Essay Example for Free

Synthesis Paper Essay According to the course syllabus we were introduced to the techniques of psychological research. This course was able to provide an understanding of how research is done, and what methods we can use to do so. By having a clear understanding of research and techniques used, it allows us to communicate effectively in regards to ideas behind the research process. In this paper, I will use myself as the case study to examine exactly what I learned about research. In the field of mental health, professionals must be constantly looking for ways to help their patients. (Cozby Bates 2012). When dealing with research, it allows us to explore valuable information that has been researched before. By understanding the value of research or ways to interpret, it helps you decide the legitimacy of your research and how to apply it while other methods may rely on personal experiences or feelings. By knowing the value of the scientific method, this allows us to hold our information to possibly a higher standard. Ideas are looked at logically and others, to ensure validity, interpret conclusions. (Cozby Bates 2012). Ethical Research After gaining a clear understanding in regards to research, I’ve learned that it’s not necessarily what we find out from research but, where we gathered the information. We always need to be concerned with how we went about finding the information. With all information gathered, we must also gather participants. It is important to gather all participants to find the most accurate results, as well as ensuring equal treatment of all participants. One major step to ensure proper treatment is to gather informed consent. By doing so, this allows all participants to understand all parts of research that may affect their decision in participating. This obviously doesn’t indicate that we have given full disclosure, so that it doesn’t affect our end results. A safeguard is put in place to protect participants which is called the Institutional Review Board. This board is put in place to protect  the participants’ privacy and confidentiality. This can be achieved through anonymous questionnaire, or coding of answers to protect privacy. (Cozby Bates, 2012). Not only is this board put in place for the protection of people, but also for animals. Another major ethical portion of research is to understand fraud and plagiarism. Some may falsify their findings to indicate a result completely different from their research which is fraud. One thing to consider that may be beneficial is peer review, which can help prevent fraud. The findings should be replicated by others to ensure the results are valid. As long as credit is given when using someone else’s research, it is not considered fraud or plagiarism. Fundamental Research Issues and Measure Concepts In research, there are several variables that can change depending on the circumstances. Coming up with an operational definition of those variables ensures that all reading the research understand â€Å"the procedures used to measure or manipulate† them. (Cozby Bates, 2012). When we’re looking at more than one variable, we must be concerned with how the variables relate to each other. These relationships can be defined as negative linear, positive linear, curvilinear, or no relationship. The two ways we can study these relationships are through non experimental and experimental methods. Non experimental does not involve any direct manipulation of the variables as opposed to experimental which involves direct manipulation to see results. Reliability is so important because it ensures the most accurate results as possible. You can then use a test-retest, you can give the test twice and judge based on the similarity of results. (Cozby Bates, 2012) Once a method can be determined and results are attained, we must look for the internal and external validity. Internal validity will occur when we are certain that the changes seen directly the result of the relationship between variables. The certainty is greater when care has been taken to exclude any other possible causes for the changes in variables. (Cozby Bates, 2012). If the research can be repeated in a different setting and the same results still apply, the external validity is high. (Cozby Bates, 2012) When working with research, we must be sure that our methods are accurate in order to trust our results. Observational Methods and Survey Research When referring to research, no matter what research method you chose, an observation will take place. When focusing on quantitative research, quantitative research allows many participants to be involved. When using this type of research, it allows the results to effect a greater population. Qualitative involves a broader investigation with fewer subjects in a natural setting, more of an observational method. (Cozby Bates, 2012). One method that I have learned during this course is a case study. This begins with an observational method that provides a description of an individual. (Cozby Bates, 2012). Experimental Design and Conducting Experiments After doing my own testing and observation, I have found that cofounding variables are something we want to eliminate. Cofounding variables can alter your results and undermine all of your research. A way to eliminate this would be random assignment of participants. Using the pre-test-post-test design helps to ensure the introduction of the independent variable is responsible for any change to the dependent variable. (Cozby Bates, 2012). Self-reports are definitely some ways to measure the variable and are done by the participants. Research can cost a sufficient amount of money and may require a lot of your time; therefore a case study may be beneficial before beginning an entire research study. Biblical Perspective Now all has been heard: here is the conclusion of the matter: Fear God and keep his commandment for this is the duty of all mankind. (Ecclesiastes 12:13). By doing so, we follow Gods plan and his word. Sometimes we may not always understand all things, but that definitely doesn’t mean God has the information concealed. I believe that discovery is more of a reward for those who seek him. This course has allowed me to understand the importance of research, how to accurately interpret research and how to protect the individuals that are involved. â€Å"It is the glory of God to conceal things, but the glory of kings to search things out†. (Proverbs 25:2) This verse is definitely an example in reference to research and whether or not scripture supports it. My understanding of the verse is that it is important to research a topic biblically as opposed to the secular world, if we refer to scripture with every issue we can find the true meaning and validity to  daily living as Christians we are looking for. Overall this course has allowed me to gain clear knowledge of research as well as determine the validity. I have learned that research may have potential holes and cofounding variables so understanding research is extremely important to understand. I have learned different research methods and what methods are best for each individual situation. I have been able to understand research and the ethically aspect of research, but most importantly an understanding of research from a biblical standpoint. Research is important, and we all need research when it is done appropriately. As long as we put God first and refer to scripture for daily living, it will make the research process a lot easier. References Cozby, Paul. C., Bates, Scott. C. (2012). Methods in Behavioral Research (11th ed). New York, NY:McHraw-Hill The Holy Bible: New King James Version. (2010). McLeod, S. A. (2008) Case Study Method. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/case-study.html

Toward a Postmodern Theory of Law :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Toward a Postmodern Theory of Law* ABSTRACT: Law at the end of the twentieth century is a practice based on legal-philosophical concepts such as the representational theory of truth, neutrality, universality, and legitimacy. The content of such concepts responds to the tradition of the western cultural paradigm. We share the experience of fragmentation in this cultural unanimity: we live in a world of heterogeneousness and multiplicity that upholds the claims of different concepts of the world and of life shared by dwellers in microspaces. The theory of law should be adapted to take this experience into account. We propose a change in direction oriented toward the creation of operational legal concepts: creative justice, perspectivist rationality, a systemic theory of truth and a judicial process that guarantees the multicultural experience. Postmodernity affirms the urgent need for a new form of legal reasoning. The work of a lawyer is commonly understood to consist of searching for and locating in the codes and laws the appropriate disposition to solve a case and apply the legal consequences anticipated by the norm to the situation in controversy. To date, the philosophy of law produced and taught at universities in Venezuela and the rest of the world corresponds to that conceptualization. Philosophical-juridical problems such as concept of law, norm, validity, efficacy, etc.; the sources of law, the interpretation of legal texts, and many others have been approached from that enlightened or modern perspective. This perspective conceives law as the only system of norms legitimized to regulate human social conduct based on the legal conceptions of the world and of life reflected in positive dispositions. This vision of law is a myth; it is extraordinarily powerful, but a myth, nonetheless. Such an affirmation is unreal, but not because law, far from being a complete and static system, is a dynamic system continually being created and modified. This condition of dynamism is already a commonplace in legal theory, yet its acceptance has not resulted in a de-mythification of law. Modification and permanent self-creation of the system of norms always and necessarily takes place according to the mechanisms and criteria of legal assessment included in the code of positive law. The aforementioned vision is a myth because the concepts and ideas that we human beings use to make the world surrounding us intelligible and manageable have changed their content and lost their quality of ethical references that legitimize the law. Toward a Postmodern Theory of Law :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays Toward a Postmodern Theory of Law* ABSTRACT: Law at the end of the twentieth century is a practice based on legal-philosophical concepts such as the representational theory of truth, neutrality, universality, and legitimacy. The content of such concepts responds to the tradition of the western cultural paradigm. We share the experience of fragmentation in this cultural unanimity: we live in a world of heterogeneousness and multiplicity that upholds the claims of different concepts of the world and of life shared by dwellers in microspaces. The theory of law should be adapted to take this experience into account. We propose a change in direction oriented toward the creation of operational legal concepts: creative justice, perspectivist rationality, a systemic theory of truth and a judicial process that guarantees the multicultural experience. Postmodernity affirms the urgent need for a new form of legal reasoning. The work of a lawyer is commonly understood to consist of searching for and locating in the codes and laws the appropriate disposition to solve a case and apply the legal consequences anticipated by the norm to the situation in controversy. To date, the philosophy of law produced and taught at universities in Venezuela and the rest of the world corresponds to that conceptualization. Philosophical-juridical problems such as concept of law, norm, validity, efficacy, etc.; the sources of law, the interpretation of legal texts, and many others have been approached from that enlightened or modern perspective. This perspective conceives law as the only system of norms legitimized to regulate human social conduct based on the legal conceptions of the world and of life reflected in positive dispositions. This vision of law is a myth; it is extraordinarily powerful, but a myth, nonetheless. Such an affirmation is unreal, but not because law, far from being a complete and static system, is a dynamic system continually being created and modified. This condition of dynamism is already a commonplace in legal theory, yet its acceptance has not resulted in a de-mythification of law. Modification and permanent self-creation of the system of norms always and necessarily takes place according to the mechanisms and criteria of legal assessment included in the code of positive law. The aforementioned vision is a myth because the concepts and ideas that we human beings use to make the world surrounding us intelligible and manageable have changed their content and lost their quality of ethical references that legitimize the law.

The Influence of Television in Politics

The Influence of Television in Politics Kendra Harris Brigham Young University- Idaho Author Note This paper was prepared for Professor Kiersten Lee’s FDENG 201 class. The Influence of Television in Politics â€Å"Americans are the best entertained and quite likely the least-informed people in the Western world. † (Postman, 1984, p. 2) While this statement is painfully ominous, its message is one that has been debated tirelessly since the dawn of technology. The influence of television in politics is one with strong advocates and opponents.There have been many studies and investigations into the effects of technology on the political world, and yet no conclusive evidence has come forth. (Rannay, 1985, p. 3) Despite this, it is no mystery that television has irrevocably changed politics in the past and now. The responsibility for this change does not lie solely with television or with the audience. What remains to be seen is whether this effect has been detrimental or be neficial to the political process. â€Å"Between 1947 and 1955, the percentage of American homes owning television sets rose from less than 1 to 65 percent; today, almost everybody has a TV set. † (Rannay, 1985, p. ) The television set became commercially available in the 1920s, but did not begin to have a political effect until the 1952 presidential campaign between Dwight D. Eisenhower and Adlai Stevenson. While Stevenson did not approve of electronic campaigning, Eisenhower to took the screens, creating â€Å"short spot commercials to enhance his television image. † (Kaid, 1981, p. 47) These commercials helped Eisenhower to create an image that was friendly and charming, which eventually led to him winning the campaign. Since this pioneering campaign, â€Å"Every presidential campaign [†¦] has relied heavily on political television spots. Television campaigning dominates the political world, and 50-75% of all campaign budgets in the 1992 presidential campaign were devoted to TV spots, commercials, and shows. (Devlin, 1992, p. 12) Given this evidence, it is easy to conclude that the television is vital in modern politics, but one must take into account what political message the television is giving to the American audience. â€Å"Over the past five decades of political spot use, about one-third of all spots for presidential campaigns have been negative spots. † (Devlin, 1992, p. 12) The television, while useful, is used today primarily for entertainment.If something is not quick, easy, and fun, then it has no place on the television. Everything from court trials to private lives are put on the screen for personal enjoyment, and it is no different with politics. No longer do politicians need to provide in-depth answers to political questions, or prove to the American audience that their policies and platform are sound – they merely need to be liked. â€Å"In the age of television, people do not so much agree or disagree wit h politicians as they like or dislike them, for the image is not susceptible to verification or refutation, only to acceptance or rejection. (Postman, 1984, p. 3) There is no need for politicians to prove that they should be in the White House with their words, because Americans will judge them on their looks and character before ever listening to what they have to say. Of course, Americans would be lucky to even hear what politicians have to say. Most political speeches and debates are cut down to â€Å"soundbites, snippets of candidate messages or commentary excerpts,† (Kaid, 1981, p. 4) by news programs, newspapers, and online journals. By the 1980s, most presidential campaign coverage on news programs were cut down to soundbites of only about nine seconds.These soundbites catch the ‘best part’ of the presidential campaign, resulting in â€Å"television news coverage that concentrates more on candidate images, ‘horserace’ journalism (who’s winning, who’s losing, opinion poll results), and campaign strategy than on issue concerns. † (Kaid, 1981, p. 4) Americans are so used to seeing the bare bones of political campaigns that they no longer search for the meat in issues. Instead, they just skim over politics, taking in a few stories here and there (mostly the more controversial stories that get more media coverage) and make their decision as to who will be president.Despite the accomplishments of television and the media â€Å"[†¦] their news departments tend to operate as [a] show-business. † (Goodman, 1994, n. p. ) Just like in show business, anything slow and detailed is boring in television, and so Americans greedily gobble up light dishes of insignificant facts, leaving the heavier business of issue concerns to others. This â€Å"[†¦] condition is chronic and has become painfully evident in the late political season [†¦] A medium that has shown it can bring information and even ideas effectively to millions is reduced every two years to a tool for stirring up emotions and shutting down minds. (Goodman, 1994, n. p. ) But enough of this depressing business for a moment; let us discuss why we are allowing ourselves to become so politically lazy. The social stigma of a lazy American is common but is not necessarily true. So why do so many Americans allow themselves to be swept up in political frenzy, eventually making bad decisions that lead to bad government? The answer is in the way we think. As Americans become exposed to more and more information the ability to think deeply and comprehensively is lost.In modern times, â€Å"the advantages of having immediate access to such an incredibly rich store of information are many, and they’ve been widely described and duly applauded. † (Carr, 2008, p. 2) Carr continues to say though, that having access to this amount of information comes at a price. Americans are getting their information from the med ia, but our information does not come from an inert source. New programs control what political information we have access to, and politicians live in a world where â€Å"they can’t control the message. † (Negaunee, 2006, n. p. Instead of being given in depth messages from candidates, news programs give us small scraps of information. As we learn snippets of information over many years, we begin to think in snippets of information, and we slowly lose our ability and â€Å"capacity for concentration and contemplation. My mind now expects to take in information the way the Net distributes it: in a swiftly moving stream of particles. † (Carr, 2008, p. 2) The television is no different from the Net in this regard, and so Americans now expect a ‘steady stream’ of politics, without any effort needed in order to know everything about political candidates.The true grit of politics – the issues, the questions, the problems, the things that matter â₠¬â€œ are not included in this steady stream. And so Americans, by our own actions, avoid the deep facts. We make decisions based on half-truths and unsearched details- decisions that shape our government. Without the ability to think and study issues for ourselves, we rely heavily on a candidate’s looks, charisma, and coverage in order to make our decision. Today, we are merely vessels for voting, â€Å"deprive[d] of independent thought. † (Huxley, 1958, p. ) As Aldous Huxley states, â€Å"Today the art of mind-control is in process of becoming a science. The practitioners of this science know what they are doing and why. † (Huxley, 1958, p. 2) While mind control may seem a little far-fetched right now, we as Americans are allowing ourselves to be controlled by our televisions, controlled by newscasters and programs that know exactly what they are doing when they give us inaccurate and biased information. Perhaps one of the best examples for showing the affect o f television on politics is the presidential election of 1960.The race was between John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon. The first televised debate of this candidacy brought very different reactions between those who watched it on the television, and those who heard it on the radio. â€Å"A survey of those who listened to the debate on radio indicated that Nixon had won; however, those who watched on television, and were able to contrast Nixon's poor posture and poorly shaven face with Kennedy's poise and grace, were more likely to think Kennedy had won the debate. † (Stephens, n. d. , n. . ) There is no saying who would have been a better president, or who was more qualified for the role, but this evidence shows that television heavily influenced the audience’s opinion of the candidates. Those who watched the debate on the television preferred the more attractive portrait of JFK versus that of the less attractive Nixon. Those on the radio – the ones who actuall y listened to the debate versus watching the people – felt that Nixon had won because his policies and debating skills overpowered those of JFK.This poses the question: would Nixon have won if there had been no television? Should JFK have won based on his good looks? And perhaps, we must ask the most ominous question of all: Do we want people elected as president based merely on good looks and a warm personality, or do we want them elected based on excellent policies and management skills? All of this seems a little extravagant and paranoid and yet the evidence rings true. We as Americans let looks and personality get in the way of actual politics and brains when it comes to a political election.Undoubtedly, the television has detrimentally affected politics. It has changed the way we think, and have made us intellectually lazy. It has changed the way we vote, making us vote based on superfluous details versus cold hard facts. Television is not completely to blame though, for Americans have played their part in allowing themselves to become lazy. The only solution to the political epidemic sweeping the nation is to change the way we think. In order to do this, we must first change the source of our information. The solution is not to bemoan technology but to develop strategies of self-control, as we do with every other temptation in life. † (Pinker, 2010, p. 2) As we force ourselves to seek complete and unbiased information by watching complete debates, reading platforms, and studying issues (or, if we cannot find unbiased information, at least studying the biased information on both sides of an issue to get the full story), we will be able to make well-informed decisions. As we seek the truth, news programs will begin to catch on that the audience demands more complete information, and we will begin to get what we crave.Only when we have the true report about politics will we be able to make better decisions regarding government and better our li ves. References: Carr, N. (2008) Is google making us stupid? In W. Brugger, D. Hammond, M. K. Hartvigsen, A. Papworth & R. Seamons (Eds. ), The way of wisdom (p. 1-8). Rexburg, ID, BYU-Idaho. Retrieved January 16, 2012, from http://ilearn. byui. edu Huxley, A. (1958) Propaganda under a dictatorship. In W. Brugger, D. Hammond, M. K. Hartvigsen, A. Papworth & R. Seamons (Eds. ), The way of wisdom (p. 1-5). Rexburg, ID, BYU-Idaho.Retrieved January 16, 2012, from http://ilearn. byui. edu Kaid, L. (1981) Political advertising. In D. Nimmo and K. R. Sanders (Eds. ), Handbook of political communication. Beverly Hills: Sage. Nagourney, A. (2006) Politics faces sweeping change via the web. New York Times. Retrieved January 23, 2012 from http://www. nytimes. com/2006/04/02/washington/ 02campaign. html? pagewanted=all Pinker, S. (2010) Mind over mass media. In W. Brugger, D. Hammond, M. K. Hartvigsen, A. Papworth & R. Seamons (Eds. ), The way of wisdom (p. 1-4). Rexburg, ID, BYU-Idaho.Retrieve d January 16, 2012, from http://ilearn. byui. edu Postman, N. (1984) Amusing ourselves to death. In W. Brugger, D. Hammond, M. K. Hartvigsen, A. Papworth & R. Seamons (Eds. ), The way of wisdom (p. 1-4). Rexburg, ID, BYU-Idaho. Retrieved January 16, 2012, from http://ilearn. byui. edu Ranney, A. (1985) Channels of power: the impact of television on American politics. (pp. 1-7). New York: Basic Books. Stephen, M. (n. d. ) History of television. New York University. Retrieved January 23, 2012 from http://www. nyu. edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page. htm

Evil Triumphs but Never Conquers

Hakeem Hunter March 27 , 2013 English 3 In literature, evil often triumphs but never conquers. I think that this statement is saying that in works of literature evil might win the battle, as some may say, but it never wins the war. It could also mean that in all literature, there is always two sides. One being good and one being evil. The characters on the evil or bad side usually overpower the ones that are on the good side. I think that this is true because the evil characters are generally portrayed as being very smart and more ahead of the game.I agree with this statement because I’ve witnessed many things that could relate to this. No matter how far evil might seem to be ahead, at the end of the day there is always fairness. In the literary work The Crucible by Arthur Miller, Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor were accused of being witches. They were then summoned into court even though John Proctor confessed of being an adulterer. He seemed frustrated; he didn’t want to be hung because he was being accused. This example shows that evil triumphs. Dan forth said that his confession has to post on the church door.John immediately changed his confession and followed strongly with the rest of the innocent people to be hung. The evil side cannot conquer the good side. Another example of evil triumphing but not conquering is Abigail. Abigail serves as the spark of hate in the play. She tempts John Proctor into adultery and commits acts against the Puritan Religion. To escape her punishment when found in the unlawful act of dancing she deflects her actions and blames them on others. She has no regard for those whom may be hurt by her accusations of witchcraft on others.It even seems that she takes pleasure in her deception. All those she accuses are innocent, yet she manipulates many into believing her actions are good. Another character that plays, perhaps, the largest role in the play is the Puritan religion itself. It may not have lines itself or hav e its own body, but the Puritan code was set up in a manner that allowed the greatest evil of all, the judgment and taking of human lives. The religion is served as a holy red herring for the unholy acts of judgment, punishment, and vindictive actions. Puritan religion consistently works against all good in the play. Evil Triumphs but Never Conquers Hakeem Hunter March 27 , 2013 English 3 In literature, evil often triumphs but never conquers. I think that this statement is saying that in works of literature evil might win the battle, as some may say, but it never wins the war. It could also mean that in all literature, there is always two sides. One being good and one being evil. The characters on the evil or bad side usually overpower the ones that are on the good side. I think that this is true because the evil characters are generally portrayed as being very smart and more ahead of the game.I agree with this statement because I’ve witnessed many things that could relate to this. No matter how far evil might seem to be ahead, at the end of the day there is always fairness. In the literary work The Crucible by Arthur Miller, Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor were accused of being witches. They were then summoned into court even though John Proctor confessed of being an adulterer. He seemed frustrated; he didn’t want to be hung because he was being accused. This example shows that evil triumphs. Dan forth said that his confession has to post on the church door.John immediately changed his confession and followed strongly with the rest of the innocent people to be hung. The evil side cannot conquer the good side. Another example of evil triumphing but not conquering is Abigail. Abigail serves as the spark of hate in the play. She tempts John Proctor into adultery and commits acts against the Puritan Religion. To escape her punishment when found in the unlawful act of dancing she deflects her actions and blames them on others. She has no regard for those whom may be hurt by her accusations of witchcraft on others.It even seems that she takes pleasure in her deception. All those she accuses are innocent, yet she manipulates many into believing her actions are good. Another character that plays, perhaps, the largest role in the play is the Puritan religion itself. It may not have lines itself or hav e its own body, but the Puritan code was set up in a manner that allowed the greatest evil of all, the judgment and taking of human lives. The religion is served as a holy red herring for the unholy acts of judgment, punishment, and vindictive actions. Puritan religion consistently works against all good in the play.

Hannibal Barca essays

Hannibal Barca essays Hannibal Barca is a much discussed historical figure whose greatness may be equated with other great military generals like Napoleon or Alexander. This well known Carthaginian hero, who took on the mighty and formidable military power of the Romans and defeated many of their well known generals in war, was a nemesis for the Romans. The fact that they could not neutralize his military prowess even in their own land in which he stayed for fifteen long years, proves his military forethought and shrewdness. Other than the military successes that his long career as a war lord can boast of, Hannibal is also known for his capacities as a well known political administrator and statesman who valued freedom more than Hannibal was instigated against the Romans from a very young age, by his father Hamilcar Barca, who was a great military conqueror himself, and who nursed the desire to beat the Romans at war and destroy their hegemony over his country. Hamilcar Barca saw great potential in his sons who he thought would help him realize his dreams to destroy the Roman Empire. He initiated Hannibal into a life long initiative that would see him attacking The second Punic war is remembered for the unbelievable military exploits of Hannibal. There were many reasons for this. First Hannibal was a young soldier, when he assumed charge of the Carthaginian army. Second, he was waging a war against the Romans, whose legions were considered to be the best in the world. Third, his forces although experts at war were limited in numbers and could not hope to resist the massive numbers of the Roman army. Another very important factor that further highlighted Hannibal's victory was that he had to fight the hostile tribal soldiers on his way to river Po, which caused heavy causalities in his army. It must be said that the second Punic war caught the Romans by surprise because Hannibal crossed th...

Wernher Von Braun and The History of the V-2 Rocket

Wernher Von Braun and The History of the V-2 Rocket Rockets and missiles can serve as weapons systems that  deliver explosive warheads to targets by means of rocket propulsion. Rocket is a general term that describes any jet-propelled missile which is thrust forward from the rearward ejection of matter like hot gases. Rocketry was originally developed in China when firework displays and gunpowder were invented. Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, India, developed the first war rockets in the 18th century, using metal cylinders to hold the combustion powder needed for propulsion. The First A-4 Rocket Then, eventually, came the A-4 rocket. Later called the  V-2, the A-4 was a single-stage rocket developed by the Germans and  fueled by alcohol and liquid oxygen. It stood 46.1 feet high and had a thrust of 56,000 pounds. The A-4 had a payload capacity of 2,200 pounds and could reach a velocity of 3,500 miles per hour. The first A-4 was launched from Peenemunde, Germany on October 3, 1942. It reached an altitude of 60 miles, breaking the sound barrier. It was the worlds first launch of a ballistic missile and the first rocket ever to go into the fringes of space. The Rockets Beginnings Rocket clubs were springing up all over Germany in the early 1930s. A young engineer named Wernher von Braun joined one of them, the Verein fur Raumschiffarht or Rocket Society. The German military was searching for a weapon at the time that would not violate the Versailles Treaty of World War I but would defend its country. Artillery captain  Walter Dornberger  was assigned to investigate the feasibility of using rockets. Dornberger visited the Rocket Society. Impressed with the club’s enthusiasm, he offered its members the equivalent of $400 to build a rocket.   Von Braun worked on the project through the spring and summer of 1932 only to have the rocket fail when it was tested by the military. But Dornberger was impressed with von Braun and hired him to lead the militarys rocket artillery unit. Von Brauns natural talents as a leader shined, as well as his ability to assimilate great quantities of data while keeping the big picture in mind.  By 1934, von Braun and Dornberger had a team of 80 engineers in place, building rockets in Kummersdorf, about 60 miles south of Berlin.   A New Facility With the successful launch of two rockets, Max and Moritz, in 1934, von Brauns proposal to work on a jet-assisted take-off device for heavy bombers and all-rocket fighters was granted. But Kummersdorf was too small for the task. A new facility had to be built. Peenemunde, located on the Baltic coast, was chosen as the new site. Peenemunde was large enough to launch and monitor rockets over ranges up to about 200 miles with optical and electric observing instruments along the trajectory. Its location posed no risk of harming people or property. The A-4 Becomes the A-2 By now, Hitler had taken over Germany and  Herman Goering ruled the Luftwaffe. Dornberger held a public test of the A-2 and it was successful. Funding continued to flow in to von Brauns team, and they went on to develop the A-3 and, finally, the A-4. Hitler decided to use the A-4 as a vengeance weapon in 1943, and the group found themselves developing the A-4 to rain explosives on London. Fourteen months after Hitler ordered it into production, on September 7, 1944, the first combat A-4 now called the V-2 was launched toward Western Europe. When the first V-2 hit London, von Braun remarked to his colleagues, The rocket worked perfectly except for landing on the wrong planet. The Teams Fate The SS and the Gestapo ultimately arrested von Braun for crimes against the state because he persisted in talking about building rockets that would orbit the earth and perhaps even go to the moon. His crime was indulging in frivolous dreams when he should have been concentrating on building bigger rocket bombs for the Nazi war machine. Dornberger convinced the SS and the Gestapo to release von Braun because there would be no V-2 without him and Hitler would have them all shot. When he arrived back at Peenemunde, von Braun immediately assembled his planning staff. He asked them  to decide how and to whom they should surrender. Most of the scientists were frightened of the Russians. They felt the French would treat them like slaves, and the British did not have enough money to fund a rocket program. That left the Americans. Von Braun stole a train with forged papers and ultimately led 500 people through war-torn Germany to surrender to the Americans. The SS was issued orders to kill the German engineers, who hid their notes in a mine shaft and evaded their own army while searching for the Americans. Finally, the team found an American private and surrendered to him. The Americans immediately went to Peenemunde and Nordhausen and captured all the remaining V-2s and V-2 parts.  They destroyed both places with explosives. The Americans brought over 300 train cars loaded with spare V-2 parts to the U.S. Many of von Brauns production team were captured by the Russians.

Timeline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Timeline - Essay Example From 1880 to 1884: According to Black, Herman Hollerith, an employee at the US census bureau got the idea and founded a punch card technology back then that was used to store information about people living in Germany. That is, perforated readable cards that could store details of each and every person such as names, gender, nationality and occupation (Black, 2001, p. 25). This was the year when the prototype was built of a counting machine that could store and use the data collected and stored in the punch cards. 1910 to 1923: This was when the US consensus changed and they stopped using Hollerith technology as it had some downfalls such as slow in speed and it was too expensive to maintain. The same year, Hollerith sold out his patented design technology to a salesman, Willy Heidinger, from a German established business company called Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft (German Hollerith Machine Corporation) or Dehomag. Hollerith sells his remaining shares of his business to Charles Flint for $1.41 million. There occurred an inflation that caused Dehomag from German to delay payments on their scheduled royalty. 1924 to 1933: Watson Thomas, a businessman propelled by Flint assumed the role of CEO of CTR and renamed Dehomag to International Business Machines (IBM) (Black, 2001, p. 44). January was the month when Hitler came to power and made a promise to create a Master Race, dominate Europe, and decimate European Jewry (Black, 2001, p. 44). IBM strategic alliance with Nazi Germany. In March, Hitler established a concentration camp whose inhabitants were political prisoners in Dachau, ten kilometers north of Munich. Willy Heidinger controlled 90% of Dehomag. In April there was a delayed consensus as Dehomag assisted the German Nazi government in ethnic identification. In October: Watson supports the move and travels to Germany where capital is also invested to precede with the Nazi project. An IBM factory in

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 5

Marketing - Essay Example In the current case, an expensive line of women bathing suit is to be launched internationally. For this, the bathing line will have to create strategic alliance either with the host nation or with a local organization. The various criteria for choosing a country are as follows: Political assessment- It means accessing government stability as well as friendliness to foreign market entrants. Economic assessment- It involves documenting and analyzing of economic indicators such as, health, foreign investment activities, taxes as well as history or mergers and acquisitions. Social assessment- It involves collection of demographic information such as, age, employment rates, income history and population. Infrastructure assessment- It involves evaluation of ground conditions like, power, roads as well as telecommunications reliability. Legal assessment- It includes preparation of all regulatory compliances which the company is not following currently. Each of the countries chosen, Brazil, UAE and Spain are politically and economically suitable for the expansion business. Also, the infrastructure in all three countries is well established and shows constant growth (Lawrence, 2000). Brazil and UAE are major emerging economies and Spain has an established market for luxury swimsuit line for women. Thus, all these three countries are suitable according to most of the chosen criteria. Marketing communication Before entering into an international market, it is extremely important to understand the foreign market and the industry environment. Before marketing communication planning, the Swimsuit Company will have to look into following criteria: Assessment of growth potential It involves projecting realistic and opportunistic growth trajectory after entry into the market. Spain is one of the major European markets for swimsuits, after Italy and France. The overall yearly swimsuit sales are increasing. This can be attributed to huge tourist footfalls as well as local market consumption. Brazil has become one of the hottest destinations for luxury apparel market, as a result of increasing number of international brands as well as affordability among consumers. Even though apparel sector has seen a constant growth in UAE, the sale of men’s luxury swimsuits is much more than the ones for women. Competitor evaluation It involves identification of top players in the industry. Spain is the home for some of the top-notch luxury swimsuit brands such as, Women’s secret and Oysho, which are market leaders. Other prominent market leaders are Andres Sarda, TCN and Selmark. Brazil is still an emerging market in terms of luxury swimwear. Local brands such as, Gap and H&M, are not doing a good job. Brazil has the opportunity for luxury swimsuit market. Most of the women swimsuits in UAE are available only in malls. Customer evaluation It involves gathering customer behavior insights which can help in making useful adjustments in product designs as well as marketing communication strategies (Young & Aitken, 2007). Tools such as, fit matrix and customer opportunity matrix, can be used. As discussed earlier, both Brazil and Spain are preferable markets for expansion. However, Spain can be considered as a mature market and competition will be tough. Compared to this, Brazil has fewer competitors in luxury swimsuits category and market demand is constantly increasing. Pricing and positioning analysis It is important to forecast appropriate approaches