Fascinating Facts About Centipedes

Centipedes (100 feet in Latin) are arthropods—members of an invertebrate class that includes insects, spiders, and crustaceans. All centipedes belong to the class Chilopoda, which includes about 3,300 different species. They are found on every continent except Antarctica, and they have the greatest diversity in shape and configuration in warm and tropical environments. Most centipedes are adapted to burrowing and live in soil or leaf litter, under the bark of trees or beneath stones. Centipede bodies are made up of six head segments (three of which are mouthparts), a pair of poisonous maxillipeds (foot jaws), a variously numbered series of truck-bearing leg segments, and two genital segments. Their heads have two antennae and a varying number of paired compound eyes (called ocelli), though some cave-dwelling species are blind. Each legged segment is made up of an upper and lower shield covered by a cuticle and separated from the next segment by a flexible membrane. Centipedes periodically shed their cuticles, which allows them to grow. Their body length ranges from 4 to 300 millimeters (0.16–12 inches), with most species measuring between 10 and 100 millimeters (0.4–4 inches). Beyond these standard centipede characteristics, there are some facts that are more interesting or even surprising. Here are seven of them. Centipedes Never Have 100 Legs Though their common name means 100 feet, centipedes can have significantly more or less than 100 legs—but never 100 exactly. Depending on the species, a centipede can have as few as 15 pairs of legs or as many as 191 pairs. However, regardless of the species, centipedes always have an odd number of leg pairs. Therefore, they never have exactly 100 legs. The Number of a Centipedes Legs Can Change Throughout Its Life Should a centipede find itself in the grip of a bird or other predator, it can often escape by sacrificing a few legs. The bird is left with a beak full of legs, and the clever centipede makes a fast escape on those that remain. Since centipedes continue to molt as adults, they can usually repair the damage by simply regenerating legs. If you find a centipede with a few legs that are shorter than the others, it is likely in the process of recovering from a predator attack. Though many centipedes hatch from their eggs with a full complement of leg pairs, certain kinds of Chilopods grow more throughout their lives. For example, stone centipedes (order Lithobiomorpha) and house centipedes (order Scutigeromorpha) start out with as few as 14 legs but add pairs with each successive molt until they reach adulthood. The common house centipede can live as long as five to six years, so thats a lot of legs. Centipedes Are Carnivorous Hunters Though some occasionally scavenge a meal, centipedes are primarily hunters. Smaller centipedes catch other invertebrates, including insects, mollusks, annelids, and even other centipedes. The larger tropical species can consume frogs and even small birds. To accomplish this, the centipede usually wraps itself around the prey and waits for the venom to take effect before consuming its meal. Where does this venom come from? A centipedes first set of legs are venomous fangs, which they use to inject paralyzing venom into prey. These special appendages are known as forcipules and are unique to centipedes. Additionally, large poison claws partially cover the mouthparts of centipedes and form part of the feeding apparatus. People Keep Centipedes as Pets Its surprising but true. There are even centipede breeders, though most centipedes sold in the pet trade are wild-caught. The most common centipedes sold for pets and zoological displays come from the Scolopendra genus. Pet centipedes are kept in terrariums with a large surface area—a minimum of 60 square centimeters (24 inches) for larger species. They require a built substrate of soil and coconut fiber for burrowing, and they can be fed pre-killed crickets, cockroaches, and mealworms weekly or biweekly. They always need a shallow dish of water. Additionally, centipedes require a minimum humidity of 70%; rainforest species need more. Appropriate ventilation should be provided with a grid cover and small holes on the side of the terrarium, but be sure the holes are small enough that the centipede cant crawl through. Temperate species like it between 20 and 25 degrees Celsius (68–72 Fahrenheit), and tropical species thrive between 25 and 28 degrees Celsius (77–82.4 Fahrenheit). But be wary—centipedes are aggressive, venomous, and potentially dangerous for humans, especially children. Centipede bites can cause skin damage, bruising, blisters, inflammation, and even gangrene. Therefore, enclosures should be escape-proof; although centipedes cant climb smooth glass or acrylic, dont provide them with a way to climb to reach the lid. And dont worry if you dont see your pet centipede out during the day—centipedes are night creatures. Centipedes Are Good Mothers You probably wouldnt expect a centipede to be a good mother, but a surprising number of them dote on their offspring. Female soil centipedes (Geophilomorpha) and tropical centipedes (Scolopendromorpha) lay an egg mass in an underground burrow. Then, the mother wraps her body around the eggs and remains with them until they hatch, protecting them from harm. Centipedes Are Fast With the exception of the slow-moving soil centipedes, which are built to burrow, Chilopods can run fast. A centipedes body is suspended in a cradle of long legs. When those legs start moving, this gives the centipede more maneuverability over and around obstacles as it flees predators or chases prey. The tergites—the dorsal surface of the body segments—may also be modified to keep the body from swaying while in motion. This all results in the centipede being lighting-quick. Centipedes Prefer Dark and Moist Environments Arthropods often have a waxy coating on the cuticle to help prevent water loss, but centipedes lack this waterproofing. To make up for this, most centipedes live in dark, moist environments, like under leaf litter or in damp, rotting wood. Those that inhabit deserts or other arid environments often modify their behavior to minimize the risk of dehydration—they may delay activity until seasonal rains arrive, such as entering diapause during the hottest, driest spells. Sources Capinera, John L. Encyclopedia of Entomology. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer Science Business Media, 2008. Print.Chiariello, Thiago M. Centipede Care and Husbandry. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 24.3 (2015): 326-32. Print.Edgecombe, Gregory D., and Gonzalo Giribet. Evolutionary Biology of Centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda). Annual Review of Entomology 52.1 (2007): 151-70. Print.Triplehorn, Charles A., and Norman F. Johnson. Borror and Delongs Introduction to the Study of Insects. 7th ed. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2004. Print.Undheim, Eivind A. B., and Glenn F. King. On the Venom System of Centipedes (Chilopoda), a Neglected Group of Venomous Animals. Toxicon 57.4 (2011): 512-24. Print.

Analysis Of Shirley Jackson And Kurt Vonneguts The Lottery

While America classical writing is often known for being dark and abstract, it often illustrates a deep message of truth that relates to the existing world. Through the mid to late 1900s Shirley Jackson and Kurt Vonnegut published a number of fictional pieces in the United States. During this time, each addressed the existing struggle between the individual and society. Shirley Jackson’s â€Å"The Lottery† and Kurt Vonnegut’s â€Å"Harrison Bergeron† are two stories that depict the oppression an individual faces when pitted to society. Jackson’s piece in particular points to the danger of blind following, while Vonnegut’s work addresses the danger in total equality. Through a number of means, both authors illustrate the danger in submissively†¦show more content†¦Regardless of the means by which the original box was lost, it was still preceded by the current box now utilized by the village. Because a precious town artifacts is not s imply misplaced, Jackson’s inclusion of this part of the box’s history points the reader towards past objectification of the lottery. Leading the villages to replace it with the current black box, the box was eventually replaced by the village. In addition, the color of the box also gives it symbolic means in context of lotteries nature. Jackson’s dual emphasis on the box being black gives its presence distasteful and undesirable tone. Black is considered to have a â€Å"very specific influence, as it is in many cultures connected with death† and â€Å"Men wearing black were seen as more aggressive† (Linhartova 2013). Color plays a significant role in setting mood and giving character. While it’s not directly stated, the lottery is an event that singles out an individual to be stoned to death. Therefore, it is fitting for the box to be colored back do to its influence it has on the village. In addition the box itself may not be aggressive, but the actions it leads to are more physically horrendous than normal town traditions, giving reason for the citizens to not have the desire to renovate the box while it is not being used. The tone which the box sets for the town is not one to be recon with, in fact

Public Speaking Class In School Essay Example For Students

Public Speaking Class In School Essay Have you ever thought of taking a Public Speaking Class In School Essay? If you haven?t I highly suggest that you do because it will increase your ability to communicate with other human beings and just make it easier. Today, I will be talking about a couple of abilities that you can greatly improve by taking a simple introductory course in public speaking. I will be talking about the importance of a good attention getter, a clear presentation of your points, and eye contact with the audience. First, I will talk to you about the importance of a good attention getter, but before I can do that I will need to explain what an attention getter is. An attention getter is the very first words that exit from your mouth in a speech and these words are used to captivate the audience?s attention and make them believe that your speech is going to be worth listening to. Now you might ask why is this important. This is essential in your speech because the worst thing that can happen in a speech that you are giving is for someone to fall asleep or to have people totally ignoring what you have to say after you spent a lot of time coming up with all your information. Now, I will talk about the importance of introducing your points clearly. This part of your speech is called the preview. The preview is basically a list of all your main ideas of the speech in the introduction. For example, if your speech is about baseball your preview might go like this: today I will be talking about the history of baseball, the highly talented players and some of the great records that will never be broken. The preview is vital because it presents your ideas clearly and to the point. It?s very bad when at the end of your speech the audience has no clue what you were trying to say or what material you were presenting. The last fundamental idea that you will learn by taking a public speaking class is the importance of eye contact. Eye contact is pretty self-explanatory in that it is basically looking at your audience for about 60-75% of your speech. According to Samovar Mills, our eyes are capable of sending innumerable messages. They can show what type of emotional state we are in and they can prove that we are sincere about our topic. Eye contact is a very little thing in a speech, but it will let you know how your audience is reacting to your speech and that will tell you what you need to do for the rest of your speech to grab their attention. Today I talked about a few of the important techniques that you will learn by taking a general public speaking class. I talked about the importance in having a great attention getter, why a preview of your main points are important, and how the use of eye contact can send ?hidden messages? and that it allows for the speaker to examine his or her audience?s reaction to their speech. After telling you about these few concepts, I hope that next quarter you will find it very beneficial to take at least one public speaking class because it WILL improve your communication with other human beings and according to Megan Mahoney, ?You can not not communicate?. Bibliography none .

Managing students with disabilities

Introduction Disability is one of the challenges encountered by teachers when delivering there services to students. It should be noted that nearly all the students could achieve their academic objectives if the right teaching and learning techniques are applied that take into account the individual student needs.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Managing students with disabilities specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Different students having different learning abilities prompting for a need by the educators to differently address these students with special education needs. If not correctly considered, the students in with mild disabilities under other unidentified disabilities might suffer due to the current emphasis on the educational sector that an inclusive educational practice be adopted. The instructors in this case should have the required knowledge and appropriately intervene to help these students to cope u p with the curriculum requirements. Instructional issues that are encountered in education are those arising due to the inability of the students to acquire, maintain, and relate the skills that are learned in class to other settings within and outside the classroom (Keel et al, 1999). Instructional issues to be addressed for students with the disabilities Students with autism Autism refers to a disorder in the development of the nervous system. It refers to a group of slowly evolving disorders of the central nervous system that are collectively referred to as Autism Spectrum Disorders or Autism Spectrum Conditions. The victims of this disorder are seen to have an impaired speech. They are also seen to have difficulties in social interaction. Regardless of type and level of autism in an individual, these behavioral and social developments are always retarded. The other obvious signs of autism include forgetfulness, problem in understanding and following instructions, avoiding direct eye contact during communication or poor sexual development. Children with autism are epileptic, have no intuitions, and show no love or empathy for others. They consider the others much the same way they do to objects.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Handling students with this kind of disability is one of the hard tasks that a trainer will have to perform. One problem that the instructors face in handling autistic students is that they (autistic students) have little or no ability to concentrate in a given task like learning in class. However, despite their slow learning pace, there are techniques that can be applied to help the autistic students learn and achieve there desired goals. Students with E/BD Students with emotional and behavioral disorder manifest some kind of uncontrolled behaviour. The instructors need to first establish if the actions of a student are caused by emoti onal disturbance requiring special education, or it results from other psychological disorders. Students with emotional behavioral disorders have a low ability to learn and retain a concept in class (Westwood 2009, p.101). They are not good at listening and taking instruction, which is a fundamental teaching and learning requirement. If the students with emotional and behavioral disorders are not properly handled, the effects of their uncontrolled behavior can extend and affect the learning of other students as well. The difficulties that are associated with this kind of disorder among the student can be categorized as either externalized and internalized manifestations (Westwood p.99). The externalized symptoms include unexplained aggression, being hostile, inability to socialize with the others, and inability to comply with the given instructions. The internalized signs include anxiety, social isolation, as well as exhibiting emotional depression. Emotional behavioral disorders fa ll in the broad category of student disability referred to as high-incidence disabilities. The other kinds of disabilities in this group are learning disabilities (LD) and mild intellectual disabilities (MID). Even though victims of all these disabilities show similar social adaptability, they are seen to differ in cognitive and behavioral characteristics (Sabornie et al, 2006). Discussions The potential resources that may useful to obtain information/support for dealing with the above disability issues.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Managing students with disabilities specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The teachers are the central players in identifying the students with some kind of disabilities and the kind of special needs education that are appropriate for such groups of students. However, a collective responsibility needs the co-operation of all the stakeholders of a given learning institution. The followi ng are some of the individuals and individual practices that can be appropriate in identifying and managing mild disabilities among the students. Fellow students Some behavioral disorders are known to spread due to the peer influence that occurs among the students. However, ensuring that the environment in class is favorable for learning is a collective responsibility that includes the participation of even the students. It is through the co-operation of the students that an emerging uncontrolled behavior in some students can be identified and controlled. Besides, in an inclusive class, the other students with learning difficulties can be assisted through collective learning practices. Fellow Teachers These are the most valuable resources in helping a teacher to identify a disability issue that affects the teaching and learning process. Teachers should have instructional and collaborative teaming with the other teachers and professionals to help identify and manage disabilities in s tudents (Rodriguez 1998). Collaboration among a group of teachers is useful since it can take a single teacher to take a long time before identifying a weakness in a student. School administrators The administration has to ensure that there are adequate staffs that are trained on the techniques of handling students with various mild disabilities (Rodriguez 1998). The institutional management should ensure that there is proper time schedule for the learning process that fits students with these disabilities.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They should monitor how the teachers follow the learning schedules that have been planned. They should also establish and reinforce corrective measures that can be used for students with uncontrolled behaviors. Family and community The community from which a student hails can determine the kind of behaviors exhibited by the students. The community has a lot of support to offer to the student before, during, and after the schooling period (Rodriguez 1998). The knowledge of the family background of a student can quickly help a teacher in identifying the disabilities in that student. Collaboration of teachers and the parents of a student can help in identifying disorders like autism, which may not be noticed at the first instance in school. Having identified a disorder in a student, there is still need for co-operation between the students and parents to ensure that the disorder is managed or corrected. Family or group psychotherapy can be of some help (Westwood 2009, p107. Both the pa rties will give the necessary psychological, instructional, or financial support for the student. Life experiences Some of the emotional and behavioral behaviors witnessed in students stem from the experiences that one has had in life. For instance, female students who have had a childhood sexual abuse may show some signs of uncontrolled emotional behavior. The teachers then need to be conversant with the possible effects of such childhood abuses before developing the best approach to manage the situation. Some personal experiences by the teacher concerning some of the uncontrolled emotional behavior among the students can also be help in identifying and managing the vice. Support staff like lab technician or librarian It might take long for a teacher to identify some poor behavior in students, especially those that are internally manifested. The students may be cheeky enough to conceal their true behavior while near the teaching staff and the administrators. A librarian or laborato ry technician can be of some help (Rodriguez 1998). A report on a student’s ability or conduct can also be obtained from other staffs like their librarian or laboratory technician. The conduct of a student during some social function as reported by security officials can provide an insight of his/her behavior. Curriculum developers The curriculum developers need to ensure that a coursework is designed that incorporates the techniques of managing various disabilities in students. Behavioral analysis techniques and behavioral reinforcement techniques should be fundamental components of every curriculum (Westwood 2009, p.107). The teachers need to understand that techniques like rebuking a student publicly may mere worsen the situation rather than correct it. Potential strategies that can be used to meet the challenges presented by the instructional issues. An important factor that a trainer handling autistic student needs to consider is that the role needs a lot of patience and perseverance. They also need to understand that these students often prefer a set of routine learning practices. Therefore, there needs to be no application of a variety of teaching techniques. The appropriate strategies are a combination of teacher directed and student directed interventions. These strategies might be of some help. Never alter or modify the schedules The children with autism are known to prefer and enjoy activities that are routinely carried out. Making unnecessary alterations in the learning schedules might cause them trouble, as they will take relatively long period to adapt to the changes. Even though such a practice may be applicable in school, it might be hard to be adopted by private tutors or other mentors at home. Nonetheless, such alterations should be avoided as much as possible. Select the appropriate learning style There is also a need for the teachers to understand and adopt the teaching and learning style that is most suitable for a given student wit h disability. While some of the autistic students may be good taking instruction through listening, most of them are unable to concentrate and can best be instructed through illustration and demonstration. Address writing issues- introduce computers A more common problem among the students with autism is their inability to get hold of a pen and provide eligible writing. A teaching and learning session should involve an instruction given by the teacher followed by a response from the students. This response could be required in form of written work. The application of modern information technology like computer can enable the teacher and student to communicate effectively with each other. Use interesting objects like toys to give illustrations One of the features of an effective curriculum is its ability to introduce a concept from a point that is well known to the student. Using teaching aids that are familiar to the students often restores their attention back to class thereby impr oving the quality of the learning process. Most autistic children are used to playing with toys. The instructors’ uses of toys to demonstrate some model will attract their attention and makes them concentrate in class. Identify the other talents in these students like Students have different abilities in curriculum as well as extra curricula activities. A student who has mild disability like autism may be discouraged by his/her inability to perform well in academics. However, such students often have talents in other fields like sports, craft, or music. If any of the talents is identified and properly cultivated, then these students can be able to understand how they are not very different from the rest. Other strategies Apart from the strategies discussed for dealing with autism in students, other strategies might be appropriate in handling instructional issues in a collective inclusion of students. These include the use of self-instructional approaches, encouraging group le arning among the students, employing individual direct instruction, and encouraging mutual learning skills among the students (Keel et al 1999). Forming groups of heterogeneous students as well as the inclusion of the mild disabled students in classroom discussions help in managing these disabilities (Rodriguez 1998). The teachers should consistently monitor the students’ progress to check if the corrective strategies are succeeding in managing the disability. The teachers should also establish rules and regulations to be used in class and the penalties associated with them (Westwood 2009, p108). The other strategy that can be adopted to manage students with uncontrolled behavior is the application of Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) (Zionts Banks, 2008, p.2). This involves the application of cognitive-behavioral intervention programs to help in shaping the students’ behavior while boosting their cognitive ability. It helps one in reducing the self-defeating emotions. It is aimed at ‘bringing about a reduction in the intensity of inappropriate negative emotions of students’ (Banks Zionts, 2008, p.12). Conclusion The teachers need to understand the diversity that occurs among the students that they meet in learning institutions. Different students have different abilities in learning and, as far as possible, they should be provided with individual attention to supply their educational needs. The teachers need to understand that every student can be trained to meet a given standard if and only if the appropriate corrective measure is taken. Identifying and managing such disabilities is a collective responsibility that requires the cooperation of all the stakeholders in education. References Banks, T. and Zionts, P., 2008. REBT Used with Children and Adolescents who have Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in Educational Settings: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Rational – Emotive Cognitive – Behavior Th erapy, Vol. 27, Iss. 1; p. 51. Web. Keel, M. et al. 1999. Selecting Instructional Interventions for Students with Mild Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms. Focus on Exceptional Children, Vol. 31, Issue 8. Web. Rodriguez, P., 1998. Critical Issue: Meeting the Diverse Needs of Young Children North. Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Web. Sabornie, E. et al. 2006. Comparing characteristics of high-incidence disability groups: a descriptive review. Web. Westwood, P., 2009. What Teachers Need to Know About Students with Disabilities Victoria: Aust Council for Ed Research. This essay on Managing students with disabilities was written and submitted by user Nathaly G. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

History of Social Psychology Essay Essays

History of Social Psychology Essay Essays History of Social Psychology Essay Essay History of Social Psychology Essay Essay As a scientific subject. societal psychological science is merely a spot older than one hundred old ages. with most of the growing happening during the past five decennaries ( McGarty A ; Haslam. 1997 ) . By most criterions. societal psychological science is a comparatively immature scientific discipline. In discoursing the discipline’s history. it should be noted that there are two societal psychological sciences. one in psychological science and the other in sociology. with the larger of the two being the psychological subdivision ( Jones. 1998 ) . The cardinal focal point of psychological societal psychological science is how the single responds to societal stimulations. whereas sociological societal psychological science focal points on larger group or social variables. such as people’s socioeconomic position. their societal functions. and cultural norms ( Stryker. 1997 ) . Although there have been calls to unify the two societal psychological sciences into a individual field ( Backman. 1983 ) -- and even a joint psychology-sociology doctorial plan at the University of Michigan from 1946 to 1967–their different orientations make it doubtful that this will transpirate in the foreseeable hereafter. In this historical overview. the psychological subdivision of th e subject will be highlighted. Wundt and The Dawning of a Scientific Discipline: 1862-1894 German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt ( 1832-1921 ) . who is widely regarded as the laminitis of psychological science. had a manus in the early development of what would go societal psychological science. In 1862. Wundt proposed that there should be two subdivisions of psychological science: physiological psychological science and societal or folk psychological science ( Volkerpsychologie ) . Largely due to his influential Hagiographas. by 1900 Germany’s one-year bibliography of the psychological literature listed over 200 articles per twelvemonth under the heading â€Å"social psychological science. † Despite his influence in determining societal psychological science in Europe. Wundt’s thoughts had small impact on American societal scientists because his Hagiographas were non translated into English and his construct of psychological science as the â€Å"science of the mind† was incompatible with the new behaviourist position in the United States that emerg ed during the early old ages of the twentieth century. Underliing behaviourism was a doctrine known as logical positivism. which contended that cognition should be expressed in footings that could be verified through empirical observation or through direct observation. This new â€Å"science of behavior† had small usage for Wundt’s construct of societal psychological science. This was particularly true for the societal psychological science developing in psychological science in America. but less so for sociological societal psychological science. Thus. psychological societal psychological science in America. which would go the rational nucleus of the subject. developed mostly outside the kingdom of Wundtian influence. The Early Old ages: 1895–1935 An American psychologist at Indiana University. Norman Triplett. is by and large credited with holding conducted the first empirical societal psychological survey. In 1895 Triplett asked the undermentioned inquiry: â€Å"How does a person’s public presentation of a undertaking alteration when other people are present? † The inquiry was prompted by Triplett detecting that a bike racer’s velocity was faster when he was paced by other bicyclers than when he raced entirely. Bing a racing partisan and wanting to larn what caused these different race times. he devised the first societal scientific experiment. In this survey. he asked kids to rapidly weave line on a fishing reel either entirely or in the presence of other kids executing the same undertaking. As he had predicted. the kids wound the line faster when in the presence of other kids. Published in 1897. this survey is credited with presenting the experimental method into the societal scientific disciplines. Despite the significance of this survey. it took a full coevals for research workers to understand the societal psychological kineticss underlying Triplett’s findings ( see the chapter 10 treatment of societal facilitation ) . Despite this achievement. Triplett did nil to set up societal psychological science as a distinguishable subfield of psychological science. Recognition for this accomplishment goes to the first writers of text editions bearing that rubric. viz. . English psychologist William McDougall and American sociologist Edward Ross. who each published separate texts in 1908. Consistent with the modern-day position in psychological societal psychological science. McDougall considered the person to be the chief unit of analysis in this new scientific discipline. while Ross. true to the modern-day sociological societal psychological science position. highlighted groups. Despite the startup of this new subfield within psychological science and sociology. societal psychological science still lacked a distinguishable individuality. How was it different from the other subdisciplines within the two larger subjects? What were its methods of enquiry? In 1924 a 3rd societal psychological science text. published by Floyd Allport ( older brother of Gordon Allport ) . went a long manner in replying these inquiries for psychological societal psychological science. Reading his words today. you can see the emerging position that would one twenty-four hours pervade the psychological subdivision of the field: I believe that merely within the single can we happen the behavior mechanisms and consciousness which are cardinal in the interactions between individuals†¦ . There is no psychological science of groups which is non basically and wholly a psychological science of individuals†¦ . Psychology in all its subdivisions is a scientific discipline of the person. ( Allport. 1924. p. 4 ) Allport’s construct of societal psychological science was proposed eleven old ages after John Watson ushered in the behaviourist epoch in American psychological science. Allport’s trade name of societal psychological science emphasized how the individual responds to stimuli in the societal environment. with the group simply being one of many such stimulations. Beyond this emerging individualist and behaviourist cast. Allport further shaped the individuality of American societal psychological science by lauding the virtuousnesss of the experimental method in analyzing such subjects as conformance. gestural communicating. and societal facilitation. The chase of societal psychological cognition through carefully controlled experimental processs would progressively qualify the field in the coming old ages. As Allport’s construct of societal psychological science gained American disciples. German societal psychological science was being shaped by the Gestalt position. which rejected both the bing European-inspired impression of a group head and the American individualist stand that groups were non existent in themselves. Alternatively. Gestalt societal psychologists contended that the societal environment is made up non merely of persons. but of dealingss between persons. and these relationships have of import psychological deductions. Therefore. Gestalt societal psychologists promoted an apprehension of groups as existent societal entities. which straight led to the tradition of group procedures and group kineticss that still exists today. These two schools of idea within psychological societal psychological science. one in America and the other in Germany. which were developing independent of one another. would shortly be thrust together due to events on the universe scene. The Coming of Age: 1936–1945 During the first three decennaries of the 20th century. Allport’s construct of societal psychological science emphasized basic research. with small consideration given to turn toing specific societal jobs or broader issues bearing on reform. However. by the mid-1930s. the subject was poised for farther growing and enlargement. The events that had the greatest impact on societal psychological science at this critical occasion in its history were the Great Depression in the United States and the societal and political turbulences in Europe generated by the First and Second World Wars. Following the stock market clang of 1929. many immature psychologists were unable to happen or keep occupations. Experiencing firsthand the impact of social forces. many of them adopted the broad ideals of the Roosevelt â€Å"New Dealers† or the more extremist leftist political positions of the socialist and communist parties. In 1936 these societal scientists formed an organisation dedicated to the scientific survey of of import societal issues and the support for progressive societal action ( Stagner. 1986 ) . This organisation. known as the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues ( SPSSI ) . contained many societal psychologists who were interested in using their newly developed theories and political activism to real-world jobs. One of the of import parts of SPSSI to societal psychological science was. and continues to be. the extract of moralss and values into the treatment of societal life. Its immediate impact on societal psychological science in the 1930s was to inculcate a more applied character to research. New countries of research spawned during this decennary were intergroup dealingss. leading. propaganda. organisational behaviour. voting behaviour. and consumer behaviour. In other states. universe events triggered alterations that farther distinguished American societal psychological science from its scientific cousins abroad. For illustration. the communist revolution in Russia at the terminal of the First World War led to a purge of individualist-oriented research and theorizing. a development that stood in blunt contrast to the increasing focal point on the person within American societal psychological science. In 1936. the Soviet Union’s Communist Party forbids the usage of psychological trials in assorted applied scenes. which efficaciously prohibited the survey of single differences. At the same clip. the rise of fascism in Germany. Spain. and Italy created a strong philistine and anti-semitic ambiance in these states. To get away this persecution. a figure of Europe’s taking societal scientists. such as Fritz Heider. Gustav Ichheiser. Kurt Lewin. and Theodor Adorno. immigrated to America. When the United States entered the war. many societal psychologists- both American and European- applied their cognition of human behaviour in a broad assortment of wartime plans. including the choice of officers for the Office of Strategic Services ( the precursor of the Central Intelligence Agency ) and the undermining of enemy morale ( Hoffman. 1992 ) . The constructive work ensuing from this coaction demonstrated the practical utility of societal psychological science. During this clip of planetary discord. one of the most influential societal psychologists was Kurt Lewin. a Judaic refugee from Nazi Germany. Lewin was instrumental in establishing SPSSI and served as its president in 1941. He steadfastly believed that societal psychological science did non hold to do a pick between being either a pure scientific discipline or an applied scientific discipline. His oft-repeated axiom. â€Å"No research without action. and no action without research† continues to act upon societal psychologists interested in using their cognition to current societal jobs ( Ash. 1992 ) . By the clip of his decease in 1947 at the age of 57. Lewin had provided many of societal psychology’s specifying features ( Lewin. 1936 ; Lewin et Al. . 1939 ) . With the terminal of the war. chances were bright for societal psychological science in North America. Based on their heightened stature in the scientific community. societal psychologists established new research installations. secured authorities grants. and. most of import. trained graduate pupils. These future societal psychologists were preponderantly white. male. and in-between category. Many of their wise mans were the European bookmans who had fled their native states and so remained in America following the war. Yet. while societal psychological science was booming in this state. the annihilating effects of the universe war virtually destroyed the subject overseas. In this postwar period. the United States emerged as the undisputed universe power. and merely as it exported its material goods to other states. it exported its societal psychological science every bit good. This trade name of societal psychological science reflected the political political orientation of America n society and the societal jobs encountered within its boundaries ( Farr. 1996 ) . Rapid Expansion: 1946–1969 With its extract of European intellectuals and the late trained immature American societal psychologists. the maturating scientific discipline of societal psychological science expanded its theoretical and research base. To understand how a civilised society like Germany could fall under the influence of a pitiless rabble-rouser like Adolf Hitler. Theodor Adorno and his co-workers ( Adorno et al. . 1950 ) studied the psychological parametric quantities of the autocratic personality. Some old ages subsequently. Stanley Milgram ( 1963 ) extended this line of research in his now celebrated obeisance experiments. which examined the conditions that make people more likely to obey destructive authorization figures. Social psychologists besides focused their attending on the influence that the group had on the person ( Asch. 1956 ) and of the power of persuasive communicating ( Hovland et al. . 1949 ) . Arguably the most important line of research and speculating during this period was Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive disagreement ( Festinger. 1957 ) . This theory asserted that people’s ideas and actions were motivated by a desire to keep cognitive consistence. The simpleness of the theory and its frequently surprising findings generated involvement and enthusiasm both inside and outside of societal psychological science for many old ages. Social psychology’s concern with social bias continued to asseverate itself during the fiftiess. For illustration. the 1954 U. S. Supreme Court determination to stop the pattern of racially segregated instruction was partially based on Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark’s research bespeaking that segregation negatively affected the self-concept of Black kids. In that same twelvemonth. Gordon Allport ( brother of Floyd Allport ) provided a theoretical lineation for how integration might cut down racial bias. What came to be known as the contact hypothesis was a societal psychological design for cut downing ill will between groups by pull stringsing situational variables. This perspective toward understanding and â€Å"fixing† bias better fit the behaviourist societal psychological science practiced in America than the earlier developed autocratic personality attack. The decennary of the sixtiess was a clip of convulsion in the United States. with the state caught in the clasp of political blackwashs. urban force. societal protests. and the Vietnam War. Peoples were seeking for constructive ways to alter society for the better. Following this lead. societal psychologists devoted more research clip to such subjects as aggression. assisting. attractive force. and love. The groundbreaking research of Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid ( Berscheid A ; Hatfield. 1969 ; Hatfield et Al. . 1966 ) on interpersonal and romantic attractive force. for illustration. was non merely of import in widening the range of societal psychological enquiry. but it besides generated considerable contention outside the field. A figure of public functionaries and ordinary citizens thought societal scientists should non seek to understand the enigmas of love affair. Less controversial was the bystander intercession research conducted by Bibb Latane and John Darley ( 1968 ) . which was inspired by the 1984 slaying of Kitty Genovese in New York City. Despite the chariness of some. during the 1960s the federal authorities expanded its efforts to bring around social ailments with the counsel of societal scientists. Within this cultural context. the figure of societal psychologists rose dramatically. Among these new societal scientists were an increasing figure of adult females and. to a lesser grade. minority members. Whole new lines of enquiry into societal behaviour commenced. with an increasing involvement in the interaction of the societal state of affairs with personality factors. The battalion and diverseness of these lines of research would go on into the undermentioned decennaries ( Pion et al. . 1996 ) . Crisis and Reassesesment: 1970–1984 When societal psychological science foremost emerged from World War II and embarked on its rapid enlargement. one of the innovators in the field. Theodore Newcomb ( 1951 ) . expressed concern that outlooks were greater than anything that could be delivered in the close hereafter. By the seventiess. when solutions to societal jobs were no closer to being solved. and as the utility and moralss of experimental research came under increased examination. a â€Å"crisis of confidence† emerged ( Elms. 1975 ) . When this letdown and unfavorable judgment was followed by accusals from adult females and minorities that past research and theory reflected the prejudices of a white. male-dominated position of world. many began to reevaluate the field’s basic premises. Fortunately. out of this crisis emerged a more critical and inclusive field of societal psychological science. More strict ethical criterions were established. and although experiments remained the method of pick. research workers began carry oning more correlational surveies. every bit good as using other methods. Sing accusals of racial and gender prejudice. societal psychological science began traveling toward more responsible places. but such prejudices have yet to be eliminated from the subject ( Graham. 1992 ; Tesser A ; Bau. 2002 ) . Another of import development during this clip period was the importation of thoughts from cognitive psychological science in explicating societal behaviour. This â€Å"cognitive revolution† ( see p. 00 ) greatly enhanced theory and research in all countries of societal psychological science. and its impact persists today. Attach toing the societal cognitive accent was renewed involvement in the construct of the ego. which antecedently had been the focal point of merely sociological societal psychologists. However. with the declining influence of behaviourism. psychological societal psychologists rediscovered the penetrations of establishing societal scientists such as William James. John Dewey. Charles Horton Cooley. and George Herbert Mead. Soon the ego became a cardinal construct within psychological societal psychological science. An Expanding Global and Interdisciplinary View of Social Psychology: 1985–present By the seventiess. both European and Latin American societal psychological associations had been founded. and in 1995. the Asian Association of Social Psychology was formed. The societal psychological science that developed overseas placed more accent on intergroup and social variables in explicating societal behaviour than did its American cousin. In the mid-1980s. this abroad influence began to reshape the subject. as societal psychologists throughout the universe actively exchanged thoughts and collaborated on transnational surveies ( Fiske et al. . 1998 ; Vala et Al. . 1996 ) . Many of the new thoughts about societal behaviour were generated by bookmans from collectivized civilizations who were raised within societies that have a really different position on the relationship between the person and the group than that within the societies of traditional societal psychologists. Subsequent cross-cultural research found that certain societal beliefs and behaviours that were antecedently considered cosmopolitan were in actuality particular to the socialisation patterns of individualist civilizations. Based on these findings. considerable research attending was devoted to finding which facets of human behaviour are civilization specific–due to conditions bing within a peculiar culture–and which 1s are due to human’s shared evolutionary heritage. Although societal psychology’s â€Å"professional centre of gravity† still resides in the United States. European and Third World societal psychological science offers the full field chances to get away what some consider the restrictions of this â€Å"gravitational pull† to comprehend new universes of societal world ( Shinha. 2003 ; Tam et Al. . 2003 ) . This multicultural position will go on to steer research in the coming old ages. Contemporary societal psychologists have besides continued the bequest of Kurt Lewin and SPSSI by using their cognition to a broad sphere of mundane life. such as jurisprudence. wellness. instruction. political relations. athleticss. and concern ( Ellsworth A ; Mauro. 1998 ; Kinder. 1998 ; Salovey et Al. . 1998 ) . This involvement in using the rules and findings of societal psychological science is a natural branch of the hunt for apprehension. Despite the laterality of societal knowledge in the 1980s. some societal psychologists raised concerns about the comparative deficiency of focal point on emotions and motivations in explicating societal thought. These critics of bing societal cognitive theories argued that to believe of motivations and affect as simply end merchandises in a cardinal processing system was to dehumanise societal psychological science. In the early 1990s. a figure of societal psychologists sought to set up a more balanced position by intermixing the traditional hot and cold positions into what some have termed the Warm Look. These revised social-cognitive theories proposed that people employ multiple cognitive schemes based on their current ends. motivations. and demands. Theorists typically developed dual-process theoretical accounts. intending that societal thought and behaviour is determined by two different ways of apprehension and reacting to societal stimulations. One manner of information processing- related to the cold position legacy–is based on effortful. brooding thought. in which no action is taken until its possible effects are decently weighed and evaluated. The alternate manner of treating information–related to the hot position legacy- is based on minimum cognitive attempt. in which behaviour is impetuously and accidentally activated by emotions. wonts. or biological thrusts. frequently below the â€Å"radar† of consciousness. Which of the two avenues of information processing people take at any given clip is the topic of ongoing research. This attending to both expressed and inexplicit knowledge has late prompted societal psychologists to research how nervous activity in the encephalon is associated with assorted societal psychological procedures. including self-awareness. self-regulation. attitude formation and alteration. group interaction. and bias. Although the Numberss of societal psychologists who pursue such research is still comparatively little. the cognition they get refering the biological science of societal behaviour will doubtless play a function in reshaping bing theories. Indeed. the U. S. federal government’s National Institute of Mental Health- which has an one-year budget of 1. 3 billion dollars–has late given precedence to research grants that combine societal psychological science and neuroscience. In reasoning this historical overview. if the life of a scientific subject is correspondent to a person’s life. so modern-day societal psychological science is best idea of as a â€Å"young adult† in the societal scientific disciplines. Compared with some of the more constituted scientific disciplines. societal psychological science is â€Å"barely dry behind the ears† and still capable to turning strivings ( Abrams A ; Hogg. 2004 ; Brewer. 2004 ; Rozin. 2001 ) . Yet it is a subject where new and advanced thoughts are remarkably welcome. where new theoretical attacks and scientific methods from other scientific subjects are on a regular basis incorporated into the survey of societal thought and behaviour. and where members of the subject regularly inquiry the societal significance of their findings. In this on-going critical self-assessment. most societal psychologists are confident that their still-young scientific discipline will go on uncovering of import pen etrations into how we function as societal animals. Some of the mileposts of the field are listed in table 1. Table 1Some Milestones in the Field of Social Psychology The Dawning of a New Discipline and Early Old ages 1862: Wilhelm Wundt proposes that psychological science set up human or societal scientific disciplines ( Geisteswissenschaften ) to analyze the higher mental procedures affecting linguistic communication. societal patterns and imposts. faith. and art. 1897: Norman Triplett publishes the first scientific survey of societal behaviour. on a subject that was subsequently called societal facilitation. 1900: Wundt publishes the first volume of what would go a authoritative 10-volume set of Volkerpsychologie ( common people or societal psychological science ) which analyzed a broad assortment of societal idea and behaviour. 1908: Psychologist William McDougall and sociologist Edward Ross individually publish societal psychological science text editions. 1920: Willy Hellpach founds the first Institute for Social Psychology inGermany. Hitler’s rise to power leads to the institute’s death in 1933. 1924: Floyd Allport publishes the 3rd societal psychological science text. clearly placing the focal point for the psychological subdivision of the subject and covering many subjects that are still studied today. 1925: Edward Bogardus develops the societal distance graduated table to mensurate attitudes toward cultural groups. Shortly. Louis Thurstone ( 1928 ) and Rensis Likert ( 1932 ) further beforehand attitude graduated table development. 1934: George Herbert Mead’s book Mind. Self. and Society is published. emphasizing the interaction between the ego and others. The Coming-of-Age Old ages 1936: The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues is founded. Muzafir Sherif publishes The Psychology of Social Norms. depicting research on norm formation. 1939: John Dollard and his co-workers introduce the frustration-aggression hypothesis. 1941–1945: Social psychologists are recruited by the U. S. authorities for the war attempt. Rapid Expansion Old ages 1949: Carl Hovland and his co-workers print their first experiments on attitude alteration and persuasion. 1950: Theodor Adorno and his co-workers print The Authoritarian Personality. which examines how utmost bias can be shaped by personality struggles in childhood. 1951: Solomon Asch demonstrates conformance to false bulk judgements. 1954: Gordon Allport publishes The Nature of Prejudice. which provides the model for much of the future research on bias. Social psychologists provide cardinal testimony in the U. S. Supreme Court integration instance. Brown v. Board of Education. 1957: Leon Festinger publishes A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. stressing the demand for consistence between knowledge and behaviour. 1958: Fritz Heider publishes The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. puting the basis for ascription theory. 1963: Stanley Milgram publishes his obeisance research. showing under what conditions people are likely to obey destructive authorization figures. 1965: The Society of Experimental Social Psychology is founded. Edward Jones and Kenneth Davis print their thoughts on societal perceptual experience. exciting ascription and societal knowledge research. Rapid Expansion Old ages 1966: The European Association of Experimental Social Psychology is founded. Elaine ( Walster ) Hatfield and her co-workers print the first surveies of romantic attractive force. 1968: John Darley and Bibb Latane present the bystander intercession theoretical account. explicating why people frequently do non assist in exigencies. Crisis and Reassessment Old ages 1972: Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior. written by six influential ascription theoreticians. is published. Robert Wicklund and Shelley Duval publish Objective Self-Awareness Theory. depicting how self-awareness influences knowledge and behaviour. 1974: The Society for Personality and Social Psychology ( SPSP ) is founded. Sandra Bem develops the Bem Sex Role Inventory and Janet Spence and Robert Helmreich develop the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. both of which step gender functions. 1981: Alice Eagly and her co-workers begin carry oning meta-analyses of gender comparings in societal behaviour. reopening the argument on gender differences. 1984: Susan Fiske and Shelly Taylor publish Social Cognition. sum uping theory and research on the societal cognitive position in societal psychological science. The Expanding Global and Interdisciplinary View Years 1986: Richard Petty and John Cacioppo publish Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes. depicting a dual-process theoretical account of persuasion. 1989: Jennifer Crocker and Brenda Major print their Psychological Review article on â€Å"Social Stigma and Self-Esteem. † analyzing how people respond to being the marks of favoritism. 1991: Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama print their Psychological Review article on how civilization shapes the ego. 1995: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson publish â€Å"Stereotype Menace and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans† in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. showing their research on how negative stereotypes can determine rational individuality and public presentation. 1996: David Buss and Neal Malamuth publish Sex. Power. Conflict. an emended text offering evolutionary and feminist positions on sex and gender interactions. A turning figure of societal psychologists attempt to incorporate these antecedently divergent positions. ( Because the transition of clip finally determines what events significantly shape a field. I will wait a few old ages before adding any more mileposts to this list. )

Effects of Viagra on Women and Female Sexuality

Effects of Viagra on Women and Female Sexuality When women go through menopause, the hormonal changes they experience often lead to a drop in libido and less interest in sex. Its nature taking its course - just another phase in the female life cycle. Its the way were built and programmed, biologically speaking. So what do we do about Viagra and the other ED (erectile dysfunction) drugs that are now commonplace and marketed directly to men in TV commercials and magazine ads? Its an important question to ponder because as every woman knows, it takes two to tango. Viagras impact on mens sex lives also impacts womens sex lives. Meika Loe has pondered this very question in her book, The Rise of Viagra: How the Little Blue Pill Changed Sex in America. And the answers shes uncovered are disturbing. Loe, who is Assistant Professor of Sociology Anthropology and Womens Studies at Colgate University, has also written extensively about sex and senior women. Viagra is marketed to aging men whose female counterparts are going through their own sexual crisis: menopause. These women want less sex but their partners now want more. Isnt this counter-intuitive? Doesnt this turn the bedroom into a battlefield at a time when women are already vulnerable (e.g., empty nest syndrome, feeling less attractive as we age, physical changes due to menopause including hair loss and weight gain, etc.) I recently visited my OB/GYN, and upon hearing about this research, she volunteered that many of her women patients have complained that Viagra has not helped their sex lives. The introduction of the pill has made sexuality, among other things, intercourse-focused and thus less satisfying. We hear this kind of thing over and over. My analysis of syndicated advice columns after Viagras debut in 1998 revealed many negative responses among women. Women writing to Dear Abby, for example, were either no longer interested in sex (and thus Viagra created new unwelcome pressure to be sexually active again), or fearing their husbands were having affairs in the context of their newfound sexual potency, and/or experiencing sometimes painful physiological effects of reigniting their sex lives later in life. It seems that Viagra raised quite a few questions for married women about marital obligation, for example. Then again, there were other letters that reflected excitement about husbands feeling healthy and confident after a period of impotence, so the response to Viagra in the population is quite complex. It would have been nice to see an explosion of people communicating about sexuality after Viagras release, but in our pill-for-everything culture, we tend to let the pill do the work and forget that it may not be an end-all be-all. Viagra tended to just exacerbate or throw light on already existing problems in relationships. It should be telling that at this point, almost 10 years after Viagras debut, only 50% of men who received prescriptions for Viagra end up refilling their prescriptions. Its not simply about a man being able to have pleasurable sex. Its also about power and dominance, virility despite aging. Its a way for men to deny that they are past their sexual peak. What are the long-term implications for a society that has Viagra in its drug arsenal? Viagra was the harbinger of things to come in the form of the pharmacology of aging and sexuality (sexual medicine is in expansion mode post-Viagra). All of this is due to a combination of, among other things, changing demographics (e.g. aging population), direct to consumer advertising/consumer-based medicine (Viagra being one of the first drugs to be advertised directly to the consumer) and pharmaceutical expansion. It is important to see that Viagras popularity fits in a particular cultural moment in our history, and there will be/have been plenty of other products to follow (including medications) that emphasize the holy triumvirate: youth, vitality, and performance. In short, as a sociologist, I see Viagra as a cultural product and thus a window onto our culture. It helps us see where we are when it comes to sexuality (and our ambivalence), gender (masculinity and sexual performance packaged together), medicine (quick-fix and lifestyle enhancement emphasis more than ever), and aging (we’re uncomfortable with it but do we all want to be 18 again?). Pfizer has helped to reinforce these traditional and not-so-traditional ideals with Viagra and it has been fascinating to see how successful they have been here and around the world with this youth, vitality, and performance-based message. Again, now that the initial curiosity factor has disappeared, it is unclear how successful sexual dysfunction medication really is. Viagra has spurred several like products – Cialis and Levitra. But the refill rate on all three is low. Viagra is certainly sociologically significant as it has highlighted many social problems in the way we do health and gender and sexuality in our society. Is Viagra Use Common Within the General Population? How does this affect behavior or alter men and womens sexual intimacy? It is difficult to find demographic information about who uses Viagra, but in internet chat rooms, doctors offices, pharmacies, etc. you find men of all ages interested in discussing the drug. We spoke with young men who had purchased Viagra out of insecurity- a just in case situation where they felt they had to live up to some social standard their first time and had purchased the pills (or borrowed them) to have some assurance of adequate performance. We also spoke with men in their 80s who felt like it gave them life again. Meika Loe, author of The Rise of Viagra: How the Little Blue Pill Changed Sex in America, acknowledges that Viagra and other ED (erectile dysfunction) drugs create additional pressure in the already complex sex lives of men and women. She also noted how it underscores the sexual ambivalence present in our society- our obsession and disgust with sex. Viagra use has a dark side. John Jamelske, the 67-year-old man who held a number of young women captive as sexual slaves in an underground bunker, took Viagra. Two toxicologists, Harold Milman and S.B. Arnold, have stated in the Annals of Pharmacotherapy that the drug has been suggested as a contributing factor in 22 cases involving aggression, 13 involving rape, and 6 involving murder. Clearly, Viagra is linked to violence against women. In the course of my research I found that Pfizer had consulted with quite a few experts about possible litigation down the line regarding Viagra. A pill for sexual potency can be a dangerous thing in a culture that is highly ambivalent about sexuality- both obsessed and disgusted with it at the same time. This sexual ambivalence is what we have inherited from the Puritans. It is one reason sexuality itself is so emotionally charged and controversial in this country (we see this in regards to sex education, advertising, reproductive politics, etc.). In the U.S. we seem to spend just as much time and effort on censoring sexuality as we do encouraging it, which makes for a very confused populace! We see this confusion in our bedrooms and in the society at large, and when Viagra is added to the mix it can highlight the issues we have with sexuality as a society. Speaking of sexual ambivalence... were a culture thats afraid to talk about sex with our children. So how is it that Viagra and ED drug commercials run during primetime and no one bats an eye? At least one Pfizer TV ad was pulled off the air (the one where the man gets devil horns after taking Viagra) but you’re right- it’s everywhere. Or it was for many years. Viagra racecars. Viagra ads during the Superbowl- and Janet Jackson got flack for showing a breast when during the commercial breaks, ads discussing penises and erections, and beer ads promoting sexuality like crazy were considered appropriate! Viagra was even posted over home base when Pfizer was the primary sponsor of pro baseball. Now we see Levitra and Cialis advertised just as often. It goes back to that Puritan ethic. We’re obsessed with sex and also offended by it- it’s a fine line. An African American woman’s breast crossed the line for some people. Sexuality in the context of medical dysfunction (complete with scientific imprimatuer and legitimacy) seems to pass. When we look at the way men and women use pharmaceutical interventions, men focus on performance (Viagra) and women focus on appearance (Botox). Or is this a gendered generalization? Sociologists would say that these are the values/characteristics we teach each sex to value most. Men are about what they DO, women are about how they LOOK. We reinforce this constantly in our society (just look at ads – men are generally depicted as active, women as body parts, or still lives, or close-ups). So it follows that our drug use maintains these gendered distinctions. What would you like to stress to women of every age about Viagra and womens sexuality? Living in the pharmaceutical era it sometimes seems easiest and most expedient to turn to medication to enhance our lives or fix our problems. However, we can’t forget to attend to ourselves, our relationships, and our lives. Many men found that while Viagra may have helped them physiologically (although for many it didn’t work or came with a host of scary side-effects), it was no solution to general sexual or life satisfaction. In some cases it actually exacerbated existing issues in peoples’ relationships or sense of self. Men and women are wonderfully complex and diverse creatures when it comes to sexuality AND in general. Simple solutions can end up oversimplifying- and doing us a disservice in the process.

Puerto Rico Court System Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Puerto Rico Court System - Research Paper Example There are various weaknesses that could be acknowledged out of the current judicial systems and this is as documented by Griffin and Abbot (2006). Understanding the strengths and the weaknesses would undoubtedly go a long way in informing what should constitute a desirable judicial system. One of the strong points in Griffin and Abbot (2006) is that they develop a comparative approach to judicial systems, and this approach is advantageous because it does not only give examples of flaws in practice that should be addressed but also some strengths that could be adopted, such as by newly established states. According to Griffin and Abbot (2006), U.S judicial system is constituted in a federal manner whereby each state within the federation has a different judicial system. Under the state court system, one is regarded innocent until proven guilty. This implies that the burden to prove one’s innocence lies with the state and not the person being accused. The system is made stronger because it is the responsibility of the state to find someone guilty thus making a person optimistic about their innocence prevailing. Another aspect of this judicial process is that a criminal is assured of a fair, quick trial as well as enjoy the privilege of being judged by jurists. This means that not a single judge can decide on one’s fate as it is the case in other countries. It also implies that a person who is innocent has all the evidence evaluated prior to making the sentence. These elements are undoubtedly the strong points of judicial systems and inform any benchmark to constitute a de sirable court system such as for a newly established state... These elements are undoubtedly the strong points of judicial systems and inform any benchmark to constitute a desirable court system such as for a newly established state. However, there is a limitation to this in the sense that much of the evidence may be suspended due to the procedure. A cop collecting evidence must do so according to set down statutes otherwise they could be done away with. In this case, evidence on tape cannot be taken into consideration if the accused was not aware that a recording was taking place as he was being interrogated by the police. This has led to guilty people walking away scot-free for crimes they have committed. This is because the passing of sentence is recommended by the same panel of jurists who determined his or her case the process becomes fair. Furthermore, the process gives judges a lot of freedom when sentencing criminals. Reeves (2008), cites examples of cases where two people get different timeframes when they have committed the same felon y. That tends to be one of the shortcomings of the state judicial process. The article proposes one guideline, neither should there be minimum nor maximum sentence.Unfortunately, discrimination when passing maximum sentence seems to be confined to black males, as the majority of the population gets fair sentencing.  

Ability & Dance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ability & Dance - Essay Example Our reaction tends to wander from discomfort (should they be allowing a man with no legs to do that?) to rather patronizingly expressed wonder at how they are able to achieve that. We forget that the dance is meant to be enjoyed to be a beautiful spectacle and not an item of pity, discomfort or faked wonder (Kilgannon). Over the years the concept of a disabled person dancing has always been frowned upon as if it is an imposition as if it as an added burden – don t they have enough difficulty as it is just walking on one leg, how will they ever manage to dance as well? As do the reactions – fake or otherwise – â€Å"It must be really taxing to achieve that†. Yet these are never asked of able-bodied dancers. Instead we are too wrapped up in the beauty and completeness of their sequences. Which al suddenly becomes unimportant and unimpressive the minute we see a disabled person try the same thing (Kilgannon). The first is the sequence with the hoola hoops done by the very flexible gentlemen and the lady. This sequence enables the audience to be mesmerized by how the two blend together, with the hoops being utilized very efficiently as props that improve the story-telling and narration of the dance. We see the man and the woman almost compete as far as dexterity is concerned, each showing off how flexible they are and how intricately they can use the hoops. The second sequence is the one in the dance studio with the disabled man and the able-bodied ballet dancer where they intertwine their limbs in such a way as to meld together in a beautiful concert of their limbs, the man’s arms and the ladies legs (Kilgannon). In the film the issues are not just of physical ability there is also mental ability since one of the men has an obsessive compulsive disorder of some sort going on as well. The film basically shows the humanity of the characters and tries to remove the inability but, as it does

Synthesis Paper Essay Example for Free

Synthesis Paper Essay According to the course syllabus we were introduced to the techniques of psychological research. This course was able to provide an understanding of how research is done, and what methods we can use to do so. By having a clear understanding of research and techniques used, it allows us to communicate effectively in regards to ideas behind the research process. In this paper, I will use myself as the case study to examine exactly what I learned about research. In the field of mental health, professionals must be constantly looking for ways to help their patients. (Cozby Bates 2012). When dealing with research, it allows us to explore valuable information that has been researched before. By understanding the value of research or ways to interpret, it helps you decide the legitimacy of your research and how to apply it while other methods may rely on personal experiences or feelings. By knowing the value of the scientific method, this allows us to hold our information to possibly a higher standard. Ideas are looked at logically and others, to ensure validity, interpret conclusions. (Cozby Bates 2012). Ethical Research After gaining a clear understanding in regards to research, I’ve learned that it’s not necessarily what we find out from research but, where we gathered the information. We always need to be concerned with how we went about finding the information. With all information gathered, we must also gather participants. It is important to gather all participants to find the most accurate results, as well as ensuring equal treatment of all participants. One major step to ensure proper treatment is to gather informed consent. By doing so, this allows all participants to understand all parts of research that may affect their decision in participating. This obviously doesn’t indicate that we have given full disclosure, so that it doesn’t affect our end results. A safeguard is put in place to protect participants which is called the Institutional Review Board. This board is put in place to protect  the participants’ privacy and confidentiality. This can be achieved through anonymous questionnaire, or coding of answers to protect privacy. (Cozby Bates, 2012). Not only is this board put in place for the protection of people, but also for animals. Another major ethical portion of research is to understand fraud and plagiarism. Some may falsify their findings to indicate a result completely different from their research which is fraud. One thing to consider that may be beneficial is peer review, which can help prevent fraud. The findings should be replicated by others to ensure the results are valid. As long as credit is given when using someone else’s research, it is not considered fraud or plagiarism. Fundamental Research Issues and Measure Concepts In research, there are several variables that can change depending on the circumstances. Coming up with an operational definition of those variables ensures that all reading the research understand â€Å"the procedures used to measure or manipulate† them. (Cozby Bates, 2012). When we’re looking at more than one variable, we must be concerned with how the variables relate to each other. These relationships can be defined as negative linear, positive linear, curvilinear, or no relationship. The two ways we can study these relationships are through non experimental and experimental methods. Non experimental does not involve any direct manipulation of the variables as opposed to experimental which involves direct manipulation to see results. Reliability is so important because it ensures the most accurate results as possible. You can then use a test-retest, you can give the test twice and judge based on the similarity of results. (Cozby Bates, 2012) Once a method can be determined and results are attained, we must look for the internal and external validity. Internal validity will occur when we are certain that the changes seen directly the result of the relationship between variables. The certainty is greater when care has been taken to exclude any other possible causes for the changes in variables. (Cozby Bates, 2012). If the research can be repeated in a different setting and the same results still apply, the external validity is high. (Cozby Bates, 2012) When working with research, we must be sure that our methods are accurate in order to trust our results. Observational Methods and Survey Research When referring to research, no matter what research method you chose, an observation will take place. When focusing on quantitative research, quantitative research allows many participants to be involved. When using this type of research, it allows the results to effect a greater population. Qualitative involves a broader investigation with fewer subjects in a natural setting, more of an observational method. (Cozby Bates, 2012). One method that I have learned during this course is a case study. This begins with an observational method that provides a description of an individual. (Cozby Bates, 2012). Experimental Design and Conducting Experiments After doing my own testing and observation, I have found that cofounding variables are something we want to eliminate. Cofounding variables can alter your results and undermine all of your research. A way to eliminate this would be random assignment of participants. Using the pre-test-post-test design helps to ensure the introduction of the independent variable is responsible for any change to the dependent variable. (Cozby Bates, 2012). Self-reports are definitely some ways to measure the variable and are done by the participants. Research can cost a sufficient amount of money and may require a lot of your time; therefore a case study may be beneficial before beginning an entire research study. Biblical Perspective Now all has been heard: here is the conclusion of the matter: Fear God and keep his commandment for this is the duty of all mankind. (Ecclesiastes 12:13). By doing so, we follow Gods plan and his word. Sometimes we may not always understand all things, but that definitely doesn’t mean God has the information concealed. I believe that discovery is more of a reward for those who seek him. This course has allowed me to understand the importance of research, how to accurately interpret research and how to protect the individuals that are involved. â€Å"It is the glory of God to conceal things, but the glory of kings to search things out†. (Proverbs 25:2) This verse is definitely an example in reference to research and whether or not scripture supports it. My understanding of the verse is that it is important to research a topic biblically as opposed to the secular world, if we refer to scripture with every issue we can find the true meaning and validity to  daily living as Christians we are looking for. Overall this course has allowed me to gain clear knowledge of research as well as determine the validity. I have learned that research may have potential holes and cofounding variables so understanding research is extremely important to understand. I have learned different research methods and what methods are best for each individual situation. I have been able to understand research and the ethically aspect of research, but most importantly an understanding of research from a biblical standpoint. Research is important, and we all need research when it is done appropriately. As long as we put God first and refer to scripture for daily living, it will make the research process a lot easier. References Cozby, Paul. C., Bates, Scott. C. (2012). Methods in Behavioral Research (11th ed). New York, NY:McHraw-Hill The Holy Bible: New King James Version. (2010). McLeod, S. A. (2008) Case Study Method. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/case-study.html

Toward a Postmodern Theory of Law :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Toward a Postmodern Theory of Law* ABSTRACT: Law at the end of the twentieth century is a practice based on legal-philosophical concepts such as the representational theory of truth, neutrality, universality, and legitimacy. The content of such concepts responds to the tradition of the western cultural paradigm. We share the experience of fragmentation in this cultural unanimity: we live in a world of heterogeneousness and multiplicity that upholds the claims of different concepts of the world and of life shared by dwellers in microspaces. The theory of law should be adapted to take this experience into account. We propose a change in direction oriented toward the creation of operational legal concepts: creative justice, perspectivist rationality, a systemic theory of truth and a judicial process that guarantees the multicultural experience. Postmodernity affirms the urgent need for a new form of legal reasoning. The work of a lawyer is commonly understood to consist of searching for and locating in the codes and laws the appropriate disposition to solve a case and apply the legal consequences anticipated by the norm to the situation in controversy. To date, the philosophy of law produced and taught at universities in Venezuela and the rest of the world corresponds to that conceptualization. Philosophical-juridical problems such as concept of law, norm, validity, efficacy, etc.; the sources of law, the interpretation of legal texts, and many others have been approached from that enlightened or modern perspective. This perspective conceives law as the only system of norms legitimized to regulate human social conduct based on the legal conceptions of the world and of life reflected in positive dispositions. This vision of law is a myth; it is extraordinarily powerful, but a myth, nonetheless. Such an affirmation is unreal, but not because law, far from being a complete and static system, is a dynamic system continually being created and modified. This condition of dynamism is already a commonplace in legal theory, yet its acceptance has not resulted in a de-mythification of law. Modification and permanent self-creation of the system of norms always and necessarily takes place according to the mechanisms and criteria of legal assessment included in the code of positive law. The aforementioned vision is a myth because the concepts and ideas that we human beings use to make the world surrounding us intelligible and manageable have changed their content and lost their quality of ethical references that legitimize the law. Toward a Postmodern Theory of Law :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays Toward a Postmodern Theory of Law* ABSTRACT: Law at the end of the twentieth century is a practice based on legal-philosophical concepts such as the representational theory of truth, neutrality, universality, and legitimacy. The content of such concepts responds to the tradition of the western cultural paradigm. We share the experience of fragmentation in this cultural unanimity: we live in a world of heterogeneousness and multiplicity that upholds the claims of different concepts of the world and of life shared by dwellers in microspaces. The theory of law should be adapted to take this experience into account. We propose a change in direction oriented toward the creation of operational legal concepts: creative justice, perspectivist rationality, a systemic theory of truth and a judicial process that guarantees the multicultural experience. Postmodernity affirms the urgent need for a new form of legal reasoning. The work of a lawyer is commonly understood to consist of searching for and locating in the codes and laws the appropriate disposition to solve a case and apply the legal consequences anticipated by the norm to the situation in controversy. To date, the philosophy of law produced and taught at universities in Venezuela and the rest of the world corresponds to that conceptualization. Philosophical-juridical problems such as concept of law, norm, validity, efficacy, etc.; the sources of law, the interpretation of legal texts, and many others have been approached from that enlightened or modern perspective. This perspective conceives law as the only system of norms legitimized to regulate human social conduct based on the legal conceptions of the world and of life reflected in positive dispositions. This vision of law is a myth; it is extraordinarily powerful, but a myth, nonetheless. Such an affirmation is unreal, but not because law, far from being a complete and static system, is a dynamic system continually being created and modified. This condition of dynamism is already a commonplace in legal theory, yet its acceptance has not resulted in a de-mythification of law. Modification and permanent self-creation of the system of norms always and necessarily takes place according to the mechanisms and criteria of legal assessment included in the code of positive law. The aforementioned vision is a myth because the concepts and ideas that we human beings use to make the world surrounding us intelligible and manageable have changed their content and lost their quality of ethical references that legitimize the law.

The Influence of Television in Politics

The Influence of Television in Politics Kendra Harris Brigham Young University- Idaho Author Note This paper was prepared for Professor Kiersten Lee’s FDENG 201 class. The Influence of Television in Politics â€Å"Americans are the best entertained and quite likely the least-informed people in the Western world. † (Postman, 1984, p. 2) While this statement is painfully ominous, its message is one that has been debated tirelessly since the dawn of technology. The influence of television in politics is one with strong advocates and opponents.There have been many studies and investigations into the effects of technology on the political world, and yet no conclusive evidence has come forth. (Rannay, 1985, p. 3) Despite this, it is no mystery that television has irrevocably changed politics in the past and now. The responsibility for this change does not lie solely with television or with the audience. What remains to be seen is whether this effect has been detrimental or be neficial to the political process. â€Å"Between 1947 and 1955, the percentage of American homes owning television sets rose from less than 1 to 65 percent; today, almost everybody has a TV set. † (Rannay, 1985, p. ) The television set became commercially available in the 1920s, but did not begin to have a political effect until the 1952 presidential campaign between Dwight D. Eisenhower and Adlai Stevenson. While Stevenson did not approve of electronic campaigning, Eisenhower to took the screens, creating â€Å"short spot commercials to enhance his television image. † (Kaid, 1981, p. 47) These commercials helped Eisenhower to create an image that was friendly and charming, which eventually led to him winning the campaign. Since this pioneering campaign, â€Å"Every presidential campaign [†¦] has relied heavily on political television spots. Television campaigning dominates the political world, and 50-75% of all campaign budgets in the 1992 presidential campaign were devoted to TV spots, commercials, and shows. (Devlin, 1992, p. 12) Given this evidence, it is easy to conclude that the television is vital in modern politics, but one must take into account what political message the television is giving to the American audience. â€Å"Over the past five decades of political spot use, about one-third of all spots for presidential campaigns have been negative spots. † (Devlin, 1992, p. 12) The television, while useful, is used today primarily for entertainment.If something is not quick, easy, and fun, then it has no place on the television. Everything from court trials to private lives are put on the screen for personal enjoyment, and it is no different with politics. No longer do politicians need to provide in-depth answers to political questions, or prove to the American audience that their policies and platform are sound – they merely need to be liked. â€Å"In the age of television, people do not so much agree or disagree wit h politicians as they like or dislike them, for the image is not susceptible to verification or refutation, only to acceptance or rejection. (Postman, 1984, p. 3) There is no need for politicians to prove that they should be in the White House with their words, because Americans will judge them on their looks and character before ever listening to what they have to say. Of course, Americans would be lucky to even hear what politicians have to say. Most political speeches and debates are cut down to â€Å"soundbites, snippets of candidate messages or commentary excerpts,† (Kaid, 1981, p. 4) by news programs, newspapers, and online journals. By the 1980s, most presidential campaign coverage on news programs were cut down to soundbites of only about nine seconds.These soundbites catch the ‘best part’ of the presidential campaign, resulting in â€Å"television news coverage that concentrates more on candidate images, ‘horserace’ journalism (who’s winning, who’s losing, opinion poll results), and campaign strategy than on issue concerns. † (Kaid, 1981, p. 4) Americans are so used to seeing the bare bones of political campaigns that they no longer search for the meat in issues. Instead, they just skim over politics, taking in a few stories here and there (mostly the more controversial stories that get more media coverage) and make their decision as to who will be president.Despite the accomplishments of television and the media â€Å"[†¦] their news departments tend to operate as [a] show-business. † (Goodman, 1994, n. p. ) Just like in show business, anything slow and detailed is boring in television, and so Americans greedily gobble up light dishes of insignificant facts, leaving the heavier business of issue concerns to others. This â€Å"[†¦] condition is chronic and has become painfully evident in the late political season [†¦] A medium that has shown it can bring information and even ideas effectively to millions is reduced every two years to a tool for stirring up emotions and shutting down minds. (Goodman, 1994, n. p. ) But enough of this depressing business for a moment; let us discuss why we are allowing ourselves to become so politically lazy. The social stigma of a lazy American is common but is not necessarily true. So why do so many Americans allow themselves to be swept up in political frenzy, eventually making bad decisions that lead to bad government? The answer is in the way we think. As Americans become exposed to more and more information the ability to think deeply and comprehensively is lost.In modern times, â€Å"the advantages of having immediate access to such an incredibly rich store of information are many, and they’ve been widely described and duly applauded. † (Carr, 2008, p. 2) Carr continues to say though, that having access to this amount of information comes at a price. Americans are getting their information from the med ia, but our information does not come from an inert source. New programs control what political information we have access to, and politicians live in a world where â€Å"they can’t control the message. † (Negaunee, 2006, n. p. Instead of being given in depth messages from candidates, news programs give us small scraps of information. As we learn snippets of information over many years, we begin to think in snippets of information, and we slowly lose our ability and â€Å"capacity for concentration and contemplation. My mind now expects to take in information the way the Net distributes it: in a swiftly moving stream of particles. † (Carr, 2008, p. 2) The television is no different from the Net in this regard, and so Americans now expect a ‘steady stream’ of politics, without any effort needed in order to know everything about political candidates.The true grit of politics – the issues, the questions, the problems, the things that matter â₠¬â€œ are not included in this steady stream. And so Americans, by our own actions, avoid the deep facts. We make decisions based on half-truths and unsearched details- decisions that shape our government. Without the ability to think and study issues for ourselves, we rely heavily on a candidate’s looks, charisma, and coverage in order to make our decision. Today, we are merely vessels for voting, â€Å"deprive[d] of independent thought. † (Huxley, 1958, p. ) As Aldous Huxley states, â€Å"Today the art of mind-control is in process of becoming a science. The practitioners of this science know what they are doing and why. † (Huxley, 1958, p. 2) While mind control may seem a little far-fetched right now, we as Americans are allowing ourselves to be controlled by our televisions, controlled by newscasters and programs that know exactly what they are doing when they give us inaccurate and biased information. Perhaps one of the best examples for showing the affect o f television on politics is the presidential election of 1960.The race was between John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon. The first televised debate of this candidacy brought very different reactions between those who watched it on the television, and those who heard it on the radio. â€Å"A survey of those who listened to the debate on radio indicated that Nixon had won; however, those who watched on television, and were able to contrast Nixon's poor posture and poorly shaven face with Kennedy's poise and grace, were more likely to think Kennedy had won the debate. † (Stephens, n. d. , n. . ) There is no saying who would have been a better president, or who was more qualified for the role, but this evidence shows that television heavily influenced the audience’s opinion of the candidates. Those who watched the debate on the television preferred the more attractive portrait of JFK versus that of the less attractive Nixon. Those on the radio – the ones who actuall y listened to the debate versus watching the people – felt that Nixon had won because his policies and debating skills overpowered those of JFK.This poses the question: would Nixon have won if there had been no television? Should JFK have won based on his good looks? And perhaps, we must ask the most ominous question of all: Do we want people elected as president based merely on good looks and a warm personality, or do we want them elected based on excellent policies and management skills? All of this seems a little extravagant and paranoid and yet the evidence rings true. We as Americans let looks and personality get in the way of actual politics and brains when it comes to a political election.Undoubtedly, the television has detrimentally affected politics. It has changed the way we think, and have made us intellectually lazy. It has changed the way we vote, making us vote based on superfluous details versus cold hard facts. Television is not completely to blame though, for Americans have played their part in allowing themselves to become lazy. The only solution to the political epidemic sweeping the nation is to change the way we think. In order to do this, we must first change the source of our information. The solution is not to bemoan technology but to develop strategies of self-control, as we do with every other temptation in life. † (Pinker, 2010, p. 2) As we force ourselves to seek complete and unbiased information by watching complete debates, reading platforms, and studying issues (or, if we cannot find unbiased information, at least studying the biased information on both sides of an issue to get the full story), we will be able to make well-informed decisions. As we seek the truth, news programs will begin to catch on that the audience demands more complete information, and we will begin to get what we crave.Only when we have the true report about politics will we be able to make better decisions regarding government and better our li ves. References: Carr, N. (2008) Is google making us stupid? In W. Brugger, D. Hammond, M. K. Hartvigsen, A. Papworth & R. Seamons (Eds. ), The way of wisdom (p. 1-8). Rexburg, ID, BYU-Idaho. Retrieved January 16, 2012, from http://ilearn. byui. edu Huxley, A. (1958) Propaganda under a dictatorship. In W. Brugger, D. Hammond, M. K. Hartvigsen, A. Papworth & R. Seamons (Eds. ), The way of wisdom (p. 1-5). Rexburg, ID, BYU-Idaho.Retrieved January 16, 2012, from http://ilearn. byui. edu Kaid, L. (1981) Political advertising. In D. Nimmo and K. R. Sanders (Eds. ), Handbook of political communication. Beverly Hills: Sage. Nagourney, A. (2006) Politics faces sweeping change via the web. New York Times. Retrieved January 23, 2012 from http://www. nytimes. com/2006/04/02/washington/ 02campaign. html? pagewanted=all Pinker, S. (2010) Mind over mass media. In W. Brugger, D. Hammond, M. K. Hartvigsen, A. Papworth & R. Seamons (Eds. ), The way of wisdom (p. 1-4). Rexburg, ID, BYU-Idaho.Retrieve d January 16, 2012, from http://ilearn. byui. edu Postman, N. (1984) Amusing ourselves to death. In W. Brugger, D. Hammond, M. K. Hartvigsen, A. Papworth & R. Seamons (Eds. ), The way of wisdom (p. 1-4). Rexburg, ID, BYU-Idaho. Retrieved January 16, 2012, from http://ilearn. byui. edu Ranney, A. (1985) Channels of power: the impact of television on American politics. (pp. 1-7). New York: Basic Books. Stephen, M. (n. d. ) History of television. New York University. Retrieved January 23, 2012 from http://www. nyu. edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page. htm